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Rh Although, the pre-Darwinian writers amongst them invoked nearly every principle that Darwin or his successors have suggested, they failed to carry conviction with regard to evolution, and they neither propounded a coherent philosophy of variation nor suggested a mechanism by which variations that appeared might give rise to new species. The anticipations of Darwin were little more than formal and verbal. As T. H. Huxley pointed out in his essay on the reception of the Origin of Species in the second volume of Darwin's Life and Letters, “The suggestion that new species may result from the selective action of external conditions upon the variations from their specific type which individuals present—and which we call ‘spontaneous’ because we are ignorant of their causation—is as wholly unknown to the historian of scientific ideas as it was to biological specialists before 1858. But that suggestion is the central idea of the Origin of Species, and contains the quintessence of Darwinism.”

C. Darwin opened his argument by consideration of plants and animals under domestication. He pointed to the efflorescence of new forms that had come into existence under the protection of man. A multitude of varieties of cultivated plants and domesticated animals existed, and these differed amongst themselves and from their nearest wild allies to an extent that, but for the fact of their domestication, would entitle them to the systematic rank of species. Some of these changes he supposed to have been the result of new conditions, including abundance of food and protection from enemies, but most he attributed to the accumulated results of selective breeding. No doubt such domesticated species might revert, and it has been shown that many do revert when restored to wild conditions, but such reversion is natural if we reflect that the domestic varieties are under the guardianship of man and have been selected according to his whim and advantage. Comparing domesticated varieties with species and varieties in nature, Darwin showed that the distinction between varieties and species was chiefly a matter of opinion, and that the discovery of new linking forms often degraded species to varieties. Species, in fact, were not fixed categories, but halting-places, often extremely difficult to choose, for the surveying mind of the systematists. He considered that a struggle for existence was the inevitable result of the operation of the principle of Malthus in the animal and vegetable worlds. The struggle would be most acute between individuals and varieties of the same species, with the result that “any being, if it vary however slightly, in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and somewhat varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected.” Under natural selection the less well-adapted forms of life would on the average have a heavier death-rate and a lower multiplication-rate. He did not suggest that every variation and every character must have a “selection value,” although he pointed out that, because of our ignorance of animal physiology, it was extremely rash to set down any characters as valueless to their owners. It is even more important to notice that he did not suggest that every individual with a favourable variation must be selected, or that the selected or favoured animals were better or higher, but merely that they were more adapted to their surroundings.

With regard to variation, Darwin was urgent in stating his opinion that the laws of variation were not understood and that the phrase “chance” variation was a wholly incorrect expression. He thought it probable that circumstances affecting the reproductive system of the parents had much influence in producing a plastic condition of the progeny. He doubted, but did not exclude, the importance of the direct effect of differences of climate and food and of increased use and disuse, except so far as the individual was concerned, but his opinion as to these Lamarckian factors changed from time to time. He laid much stress on the unity of the organism in every stage of its existence, with the resulting correlation of variations, so that the favouring of one particular variation entailed modifications of correlated structures. He recognized the existence

of the large variations, but he believed these to be of little value in evolution, and he attached preponderating importance to relatively minute indeterminate variations. On the other hand, he was far from advocating the view that has been pithily expressed as the “selection of the fit from the fortuitous”; he recognized that variations, although perhaps suggested or excited by the environment, were determined by internal causes. He showed how different varieties in a species, or species in a genus, tended to display parallel variation, clearly indicating that the range and direction of variation were limited or determined by the nature of the organism.

Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer of the Darwinian principles, had sent to Darwin early in 1858 an outline of a theory of the origin of species. Darwin found that it was, in all essential respects, identical with his own theory at the exposition of which he had been working for many years. With an unselfish generosity which must always shine in the history of science, and indeed of the human race, Darwin proposed at once to communicate his correspondent's essay to the Linnaean Society of London, but was persuaded by his friends to send with it an outline of his own views. Accordingly, on the same evening, in July 1858, both communications were made to the Linnaean Society. When Wallace found how much more fully Darwin was equipped for expounding the new views, he exhibited an unselfish modesty that fully repaid Darwin's generosity, henceforth described himself as a follower of Darwin, entitled his most important publication on the theory of evolution Darwinism, and did not issue it until 1889, long after the world had given full credit to Darwin. In most respects his ideas were closely parallel with those of Darwin. He believed that species had been formed by means of natural selection. He insisted that the great powers of increase of all organisms led to a tremendous struggle for existence, and that variability extended to every part and organ of every organism; that the variability was large in amount in proportion to the size of the part, affected, and occurred in a considerable proportion of the individuals of those large and dominant species which might be supposed to be breaking up into new species. He pointed to the changes wrought on domesticated organisms by the artificial selection of similar variations, and drew the inference that there must be parallel occurrences under wild nature. In the sphere of nature, with its vast numbers and constant pressure, not every more favoured individual would survive, nor every surviving individual be the more favoured, but throughout the changes and chances there would be a constant and important bias in favour of the individuals more fitted to their conditions. Wallace, however, brought into his scheme a factor excluded by Darwin. He believed that behind the natural world lay a spiritual world, irruptions from which had disturbed the natural sequence of causation, certainly in the production of the higher emotional and mental qualities of man, probably in the appearance of self-consciousness, and possibly in the first origin of life.

It is to be remembered that the origin of species by the modification of pre-existing species,—in fact, the doctrine of organic evolution,—although first made credible by Darwin and Wallace, does not depend upon their theory of the relation of natural selection to variation. The theory of evolution is supported by a great range of evidence, much of which was first collected by Darwin, and which has been enormously increased by subsequent workers excited by his genius. Such evidence relates to the facts of classification, structure, development, and geographical and geological distribution. It now remains to examine in closer detail the further knowledge that has been gained with regard to variation and the bearing of that on the Darwinian position.

Magnitude of Variation.—Darwin was well aware that variation ranged from differences so minute as to become apparent only on careful measurement to those large departures from the normal which may be called abnormalities, malformations or monstrosities. He was of the opinion that the summation of minute differences had played a preponderating if not