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 and philosophy had already, in 1788, been removed to Brussels—an

almost unique example of a university which owed its origin neither to a temporal nor an ecclesiastical authority—and in 1834 Brussels was constituted a free and independent university with a new fourth faculty of natural science, and supported mainly by contributions from the Liberal party. Having, however, no charter, it continued incapable by law of possessing property. While Louvain and Brussels thus represented to a great extent the two chief political parties in the realm, the universities of Ghent on the Scheldt and Liége on the Meuse recruited their students mainly from the two chief races—the Flemish and the Walloon. In Holland, on the other hand, where no such marked racial differences exist, the universities of Groningen, Leiden and Utrecht have been assimilated (1876) in constitution, each being administered by a consistory of five rectors with a senate composed of the professors in the respective faculties. The foundation of the

university of Amsterdam (1877) more than repaired dam the loss of Franeker and Harderwijk, and the progress of this new centre during the first ten years of its existence was remarkably rapid. The higher education of women has made some progress in the Netherlands.

In Sweden the foundation of the university of Upsala, sanctioned in 1477 by Sixtus IV. as a studium generale on the

model of Bologna, was followed at a long interval, by that of Lund (1666), which was created during the minority of Charles XI. with statutes and privileges almost identical with those of Upsala and with an endowment largely derived from the alienated revenues of the chapter of the cathedral. The students were recruited from Denmark, Germany and Sweden; and Puffendorf, the civilian, was one of its first professors. During Charles's reign its resources were in turn confiscated, and the university itself was closed in 1676 in consequence of the war with Denmark. When again opened it remained for a long time in a very depressed condition, from which it failed to rally until the 19th century, when it took a new departure, and the erection of its handsome new buildings (1882) invested it with additional attractions. The royal university of Upsala, roused to new life in the 17th century by the introduction of the Cartesian philosophy, has been throughout (notwithstanding its singularly chequered history), the chief home of the higher Swedish education. In the 18th century lectures began to be delivered in Swedish; while the medieval division of the students into “nations” continued, as at Lund, until the second quarter of the 19th. The various changes and events during the interesting period 1872 to 1897 have been recorded at length in the national tongue by Reinhold Geijer in a handsome quarto which appeared in 1897. Gothenburg, on the other hand, with its society of science and literature, dating from 1841, has represented rather a popular institution, existing independently of the state, maintained chiefly by private contributions, and governed by a board called the Curatorium. For a long time it was not empowered to hold examinations. Stockholm (1878) still remains a gymnasium, but its curriculum is to a certain extent supplemented by its connexion with Upsala, from which it is little more than forty miles distant by rail. The university of Christiania in Norway, founded in 1811,

and the Swedish universities are strongly Lutheran in character; and all alike are closely associated with the ecclesiastical institutions of the Scandinavian kingdoms. The same observation applies to Copenhagen—where, however, the labours of Rask and Madvig have done much to sustain the reputation of the university for learning.

The royal university of Kiel was founded in 1665 by Duke Christian Albrecht of Holstein (who himself assumed the office of rector) with faculties of theology, law, medicine and philosophy. It maintained its ground, although not without difficulty, amid the feuds that frequently arose between its dukes and the kings of Denmark, and under the rule of Catherine II. of Russia and after the incorporation of Schleswig-Holstein with the kingdom of Denmark made a

marked advance. In the latter half of last century it acquired new buildings and rose into high reputation as a school of chemistry, physiology and anatomy, while its library in 1904 exceeded 250,000 volumes.

The number of universities founded in the last century is in striking contrast to the paucity which characterizes the two preceding centuries, an increase largely resulting, however, from the needs of English colonies and dependencies. In the

Mediterranean, Genoa (1812), Messina (1838) and Marseilles (1854) were foundations which supplied a genuine want and have gradually attained to a fair measure of success. The first had previously existed a school of law and medicine, but when, along with the rest of the Ligurian republic, it became incorporated in the empire under Napoleon I., the emperor, in order to conciliate the population, raised it to the rank of a university in 1812. The university subsequently fell into the hands of the Jesuits, who maintained their tenure of the principal chairs until the unification of the Italian kingdom under Victor Emmanuel, when Messina, which had been founded during the rule of the Bourbons over the Two Sicilies, became similarly included under Italian rule. Of Marseilles mention has above been made.

In France the fortunes of academic learning were even less happy than in Germany. The university of Dôle in Franche

Comté had for two hundred years been a flourishing centre of higher education for the aristocracy, and was consequently regarded with envy by Besançon. In 1691, however, when the country had been finally ceded to France, and Savoy had been subjugated by the arms of Catina, Louis XIV. was induced, on the payment of a considerable sum, to transfer the university to Besançon. Here it forthwith acquired enhanced importance under the direction of the Jesuits. But

in 1722, on the creation of a university at Dijon, the faculty of law was removed to that city, where it continued to exist until the Revolution.

The university of Paris indeed was distracted, throughout the 17th century, by theological dissensions—in the first

instance owing to the struggle that ensued after the Jesuits had effected a footing at the Collège de Clermont, and subsequently by the strife occasioned by Paris the teaching of the Jansenists. Its studies, discipline and numbers alike suffered. Towards the close of the century a certain revival took place, and a succession of illustrious names—Pourchot, Rollin, Grenan, Coffin, Demontempuys, Crevier, Lebeau—appear on the roll of its teachers. But this improvement was soon interrupted by the controversies excited by the promulgation of the bull Unigenitus in 1713, condemning the tenets of Quesnel, when Rollin himself, although a man of singularly pacific disposition, deemed it his duty to head the opposition to Clement XI. and the French episcopate. At last, in 1762, the parlement of Paris issued a decree (August 6) placing the colleges of the Jesuits at the disposal of the university, and this was immediately followed by another for the expulsion of the order from Paris, the university being installed in possession of their vacated premises. Concurrently with this measure, the curriculum of prescribed studies assumed a more hopeful character, and both history and natural science began to be cultivated with a certain success. These innovations, however, were soon lost sight of in the more sweeping changes which followed upon the Revolution. On the 15th of September 1793 the universities and colleges throughout France, together with the faculties of theology, medicine, jurisprudence and arts, were abolished by a decree of the convention, and the whole system of national education may be said to have remained in abeyance, until, in 1808, Napoleon I. promulgated the scheme which in its essential features is almost identical with that which at present obtains—the whole system of education, both secondary and primary, being made subject to the control and direction of the state. In pursuance of this conception, the “university of France,” as it was henceforth styled, became little more