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HISTORY 1865-1910] of the conservation of natural resources (see : United States; and the article ). This congress met in May 1908 and endorsed the proposal for vigorous attention by state and nation to the question.

409. In the campaign of 1908 he succeeded, against the opposition of both the extreme conservative and the radical wings, in procuring the nomination of Secretary Taft by the Republicans on a platform endorsing the Roosevelt policies, promising a revision of the tariff at a special session, on the basis of such protection as would equal the difference between the cost of production at home and abroad, together with a reasonable profit to American industries, and providing for maximum and minimum rates to be used in furthering American commerce and preventing discrimination's by other nations. A postal bank was promised, a more effective regulation of the railways, and a modification of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. Labour failed to secure a thoroughgoing pledge to prevent the use of the writ of injunction in labour disputes, but the convention promised legislation to limit its use. The Democrats again selected William J. Bryan as their candidate; demanded the enforcement of criminal law against “trust magnates” and such additional legislation as would prevent private monopoly; opposed the use of injunctions in cases where they would issue if no industrial dispute was involved; impugned the Republicans good faith in tariff revision, promising for themselves a substantial reduction of duties; favoured an income tax and a guarantee fund by national banks to pay depositors of insolvent banks, or a postal savings bank, if the guaranteed bank could not be secured; demanded election of United States senators by direct vote of the people, legislation to prevent contributions by corporations to campaign funds, and a more efficient regulation of railways. The party also declared against centralization, favouring the use of both Federal and state control of interstate commerce and private monopoly.

410. The Republicans won a sweeping victory, Taft's popular plurality reaching about 1,270,000 and his electoral

majority 159. But it had been won by some ambiguity of utterance with respect to tariff and railway regulation. The result was made manifest early in the new administration, when party contentions over the direction of revision of the tariff, the thoroughness of the regulation of railways and corporations, and the question of where the postal bank fund should be placed, resulted in a movement of “insurgency” among the Republicans of the Middle West. The insurgents termed themselves “Progressive Republicans,” and did not hesitate to join forces with the Democrats in order to shape legislation to their wishes. Progressives and Democrats united in overturning the control of Speaker J. G. Cannon in the House of Representatives by modifying the rules, and a group of senators, chiefly from the Middle Western states, destroyed the control of the regular leaders in the Upper House. President Taft's influence over the revolting wing was further weakened by the charges made against his secretary of the interior, Richard A. Ballinger, on behalf of Gifford Pinchot, the chief forester, who accused the administration of obstructing Mr Roosevelt's “conservation” policy.

411. Mr Pinchot was indeed removed from office, but the “conservation” issue was raised to primary importance by the

return of Mr Roosevelt from his African trip. His influence was revealed even while he was enjoying the hospitality of European countries on his return. There was a widely extended desire to know his judgment of the administration's policy; but he maintained silence until the close of the summer of 1910, when in a series of public utterances in the West he ranged himself, on the whole, with the progressive wing and announced a “new nationalism” which should enlarge the power of the Federal government and drive the “special interests” out of politics. The “insurgents” achieved remarkable victories in the Middle West, California, New Hampshire and New York in the fall conventions and primary

elections, retiring various leaders of the regular wing of the Republicans. Senators Aldrich and Hale, former regular leaders in the Senate, had already announced their purpose to resign. President Taft's utterances indicated his intention to discontinue the use of patronage against the leaders of the progressive wing and to secure additional tariff revision by separate schedules. The result of the autumn elections was a pronounced victory for the Democratic party.

412. At the close of the first decade of the 20th century the United States was actively engaged in settling its social economic questions, with a tendency toward radicalism in its dealings with the great industrial forces of the nation. The “sweat shops” and slums of the great cities were filled with new material for American society to assimilate. To the sisterhood of states had been added Oklahoma (1907), and in 1910 Congress empowered New Mexico and Arizona to form constitutions preparatory to statehood, thus extinguishing the last Territories, except the insular dependencies and Alaska. Already the food supply showed signs of not keeping pace with the growth of population, while the supply of gold flowed in with undiminished volume. High prices became a factor in the political situation. Between 1890 and 1900, in the continental United States, farms were added in area equal to that of France and Italy combined. Even the addition of improved farm land in that decade surpassed the whole area of France or of the German Empire in Europe. But intensive cultivation and agricultural returns hardly kept pace with the growth in population or the extension of farms.

Bibliographical Guides.—J. N. Larned (ed.), The Literature of American History (Boston, 1902), is useful so far as it extends. The “Critical Essays on Authorities,” in vols. xxi.-xxvi. (1907) of the “American Nation Series” (New York, 1905-1907), edited by A. B. Hart, constitute the best bibliographical apparatus for the whole period. W. Wilson, History of the American People, vol. v., has helpful evaluated lists of authorities. The Cambridge Modern History, vol. vii., has a useful unannotated list. Periodical literature, important for this era, can be found through the successive volumes of the Index to Periodical Literature (New York, 1882 sqq.), edited by W. F. Poole and W. J. Fletcher. Public documents are listed in B. P. Poore, Descriptive Catalogue of Government Publications of the United States, 1775-1881 (Washington, 1885); J. G. Ames, Comprehensive Index of Publications of the United States Government, 1881-1893 (Washington, 1894); Catalogue of Public Documents of Congress and of all Departments of Government of the United States, 1893-1899; Tables of and Annotated Index to Congressional Series of United States Public Documents (Washington, 1902). For economic material see the bibliographies in D. R. Dewey, Financial History of the United States (New York, 1902); E. L. Bogart, Economic History of the United States (ibid., 1907); F. A. Cleveland and F. W. Powell, Railroad Promotion and Capitalization in the United States (New York, 1909); and Miss A. R. Hasse's Index of Economic Material in the Documents of the United States (Washington, 1907 sqq.).

The Library of Congress publishes, under the editorship of A. P. C. Griffin, lists and references to books and articles on special subjects.

General Accounts.—Much the most satisfactory treatment is in the volumes of the “American Nation Series” mentioned above, such as W. A. Dunning, Reconstruction, Political and Economic, 1865-1877; E. E. Sparks, National Development, 1877-1885; D. R. Dewey, National Problems, 1885-1897; J. H. Latané, America as a World Power, and A. B. Hart, National Ideals Historically Traced. All these were published in 1907. The later volumes of J. F. Rhodes History of the United States since the Compromise of 1850 (7 vols., New York, 1893-1904), cover the period from 1865 to 1876 with solid judgment and accuracy; Woodrow Wilson, History of the American People, vol. v. (New York, 1902), gives an informing presentation with a sympathetic treatment of Southern conditions. Lee and Thorpe (editors), History of North America, vols. xvi.-xx.; H. W. Elson, History of the United States, vols., iv and v. (New York, 1905), and W. Garner and H. C. Lodge, History of the United States, vol. iv. (Philadelphia, 1906), deal with the period as part of a general history. E. B. Andrews, The United States in our own Time (New York, 1903), and H. T. Peck, Twenty Years of the Republic, 1885-1905 (New York, 1906), are popular presentations.

Documentary Sources.—The Congressional documents and state public documents afford valuable material. The Congressional debates have become too bulky for the general reader, but in the president's messages, as collected in J. D. Richardson (ed.), Messages and Papers of the Presidents (to 1899), the main questions are presented, and detailed information is in the reports of the heads of departments and bureaus. W. MacDonald, Select Statutes of United States, 1861-1898 (New York, 1903), contains important laws, with brief historical introductions.
 * (F. J. T.)