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 Life, by C. F. Adams (10 vols., Boston, 1850–1856), representing the Federalists; The Writings of James Madison, edited by Gaillard Hunt (9 vols., New York, 1900–1910), and The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, edited by P. L. Ford (10 vols., New York, 1892–1899), representing the Anti-Federalists or Republicans; The Writings of James Monroe, edited by S. H. Hamilton (7 vols., New York, 1898–1903); Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, comprising Portions of his Diary from 1795 to 1848, edited by C. F. Adams (12 vols., Philadelphia, 1874–1877); Works of Henry Clay, comprising his Life, Correspondence and Speeches, edited, with Life, by Calvin Colton (10 vols., New York, 1904) and Thomas Hart Benton’s Thirty Years’ View; or, a History of the Working of the American Government (2 vols., New York, 1854–1856), for the “Middle Period”; The Writings and Speeches of Daniel Webster, edited by J. W. McIntyre (18 vols., Boston, 1903); Letters of Daniel Webster, edited by C. H. van Tyne (New York, 1902); Complete Works of Abraham Lincoln, comprising his Speeches, Letters, State Papers and Miscellaneous Writings, edited by J. G. Nicolay and John Hay (2 vols., New York, 1902); The Works of William H. Seward, edited by G. E. Baker (5 vols., 2nd ed., Boston, 1883–1890), and The Works of Charles Sumner (15 vols., Boston, 1870–1883), for the Northern view; The Works of John C. Calhoun, edited by R. K. Crallé (6 vols., New York, 1854–1855); Alexander H. Stephens, Constitutional View of the Late War between the States (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1868–1870), and Jefferson Davis, Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (2 vols., New York, 1881), for the Southern view.

Secondary Works: Three large and important secondary works cover the whole, or nearly the whole, period from the War of Independence to the Civil War. They are: James Schouler, History of the United States of America under the Constitution (rev. ed., 6 vols., New York, 1899), scholarly and comprehensive, but lacking in clearness, and, in the latter portion, unfair to the South; J. B. McMaster, History of the People of the United States from the Revolution to the Civil War (7 vols., New York, 1883–1910), especially valuable for its treatment of social and economic conditions and for material gathered from newspapers; H. E. von Holst, Constitutional and Political History of the United States (2nd ed., 8 vols., Chicago, 1899), chiefly a treatment of the constitutional aspects of slavery by a German with strong ethical and strong anti-slavery sentiments. The period is ably treated in sections by A. C. McLaughlin, The Confederation and the Constitution, vol. x. of “The American Nation Series” (New York, 1905); J. S. Bassett, The Federal System, vol. ii. of “The American Nation Series”; Henry Adams, History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Jefferson and Madison (9 vols., New York, 1891), quotes freely from records in foreign archives; J. W. Burgess, The Middle Period, 1817–1858 (New York, 1901), and J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 (7 vols., New York, 1900–1906), which, although written largely from Northern sources, is for the most part fair and judicial. For lists of works dealing with special events (e.g. the Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, the Fugitive Slave Law, &c.), see the articles devoted to those subjects. See also vols. xii. to xxi. of “The American Nation Series,” consisting of Edward Channing, The Jeffersonian System; K. C. Babcock, The Rise of American Nationality; F. J. Turner, Rise of the New West; William MacDonald, Jacksonian Democracy; A. B. Hart, Slavery and Abolition; G. P. Garrison, Westward Expansion; T. C. Smith, Parties and Slavery; F. E. Chadwick, Causes of the Civil War; and J. K. Hosmer, The Appeal to Arms, and Outcome of the Civil War. For further study of the Civil War see Edward McPherson, Political History of the United States during the Great Rebellion (Washington, 1864; 3rd ed., 1876), chiefly a compilation of first-hand material; J. W. Burgess, The Civil War and the Constitution (2 vols., New York, 1901). The best account of the military operations of the Mexican War is in R. S. Ripley, The War with Mexico, (2 vols., New York, 1849). For a list of works relating to the military events of the War of 1812 and the Civil War see the separate articles on those subjects. On the War with France, 1798, see G. W. Allen, Our Naval War with France (New York, 1909). On the development of the West there are: H. B. Adams, Maryland’s Influence upon Land Cessions to the United States (Baltimore, 1885); B. A. Hinsdale, The Old North-West (revised ed., New York, 1899), a scholarly work; Justin Winsor, The Westward Movement (Boston, 1897), a storehouse of facts, but dry for the general reader; Theodore Roosevelt, The Winning of the West (4 vols., New York, 1889–1896), a graphic outline. Other important works on special subjects are: Edward Stanwood, History of the Presidency (Boston, 1898), a study of presidential campaigns; J. P. Gordy, History of Political Parties in the United States (2 vols., rev. ed., New York, 1900–1902); E. D. Warfield, The Kentucky Resolutions of 1798 (New York, 1887); Freeman Snow, Treaties and Topics in American Diplomacy (Boston, 1894); J. B. Moore, A Digest of International Law (6 vols., Washington, 1906), and History and Digest of the International Arbitrations to which the United States has been a Party (6 vols., Washington, 1898); E. S. Maclay, History of the United States Navy from 1775 to 1894 (3 vols., New York, 1897–1902); G. W. Allen, Our Navy and the Barbary Corsairs (Boston, 1905); J. R. Spears, History of our Navy (4 vols., New York, 1897); D. R. Dewey, Financial History of the United States (New York, 1903); W. G. Sumner, History of

Banking in the United States (New York, 1896); R. C. H. Catterall, The Second Bank of the United States (Chicago, 1903); F. W. Taussig, Tariff History of the United States (4th ed., New York, 1898); E. L. Bogart, Economic History of the United States (New York, 1907); E. D. Fite, Social and Industrial Conditions in the North during the Civil War (New York, 1910), and J. L. Bishop, History of American Manufactures (3 vols., 3rd ed., Philadelphia, 1867). For biographies of the leading statesmen of the period see American Statesmen, edited by J. F. Morse, jun. (32 vols., new ed., Boston, 1899); see also the bibliographies at the close of the biographical sketches of statesmen in this edition of the Ency. Brit. There is a “Critical Essay on Authorities” in each volume of The American Nation; and both The Literature of American History, edited by J. N. Larned (Boston, 1902), and Channing and Hart’s Guide to the Study of American History, are valuable bibliographical guides.

257. The capitulation of Lee (April 9, 1865), followed by the assassination of Lincoln (April 15) and the surrender of the last important Confederate army, under J. E. Johnston, marked the end of the era of war and the beginning of that of Reconstruction, a problem which involved a revolution in the social and political structure of the South, in the relation, of state and nation in the American Federal Union, and in the economic life of the whole country.

258. Economically the condition of the South was desperate. The means of transport were destroyed; railways and bridges were ruined; Southern securities were valueless; the Confederate currency system was completely disorganized. Great numbers of the emancipated negroes wandered idly from place to place, trusting the Union armies for sustenance, while their former masters toiled in the fields to restore their plantations.

259. The social organization of the South had been based on negro slavery. Speaking generally, the large planters had constituted the dominant class, especially in the cotton states; and in the areas of heaviest negro population these planters had belonged for the most part to the old Whig party. Outside

of the larger plantation areas, especially in the hill regions and the pine barrens, there was a population of small planters and poor whites who belonged in general to the Democratic party. In the mountain regions, where slavery had hardly existed, there were Union areas, and from the poor whites of this section had come Andrew Johnson, senator and War governor of Tennessee, who was chosen vice-president on the Union ticket with Lincoln in 1864 as a recognition of the Union men of the South. Accidental as was Johnson’s elevation to the presidency, there was an element of fitness in it, for the war destroyed the former ruling class in the Southern States and initiated a democratic revolution which continued after the interregnum of negro government. Of this rise of the Southern masses Johnson was representative.

260. The importance of personality in history was clearly illustrated when the wise and sympathetic Lincoln, who had the confidence of the masses of the victorious North, was replaced by Johnson, opinionated and intemperate, whose antecedents as a Tennessean and Democrat, and whose state rights’ principles and indifference

to Northern ideals of the future of the negro made him distrusted by large numbers of the Union Republican party.

261. The composition of this party was certain to endanger its stability when peace came. It had carried on the war by a coalescence of Republicans, War Democrats, Whigs, Constitutional Unionists and Native Americans, who had rallied to the cause of national unity. At the outset it had asserted that its purpose was not to

interfere with the established institutions in slave states, but to defend the Constitution, and to preserve the Union with all the dignity, equality and rights of the several states unimpaired. But the war had destroyed slavery, as well as preserved the Union, and the civil status of the negro and the position of the revolted states now became burning questions, reviving old antagonisms and party factions. To the extremists of the Radical wing it seemed in accordance with