Page:EB1911 - Volume 27.djvu/633

 Physical Aspects.—The province occupies, roughly speaking, the upper basin of the Ganges and the Jumna, corresponding to the Hindostan proper of the Mahommedan chroniclers. A large semi-circular tract, comprising the valleys of the Gogra, and the Gumti, has long been separated from the remainder of the great plain as the kingdom of Oudh; and though since 877 it has been under the administrative Charge of a lieutenant-governor, it retains certain features of its former status as a chief-commissioner ship. The province includes the whole upper portion of the wide Gangetic basin, from the Himalayas and the Punjab plain to the Vindhyan plateau, and the low-lying rice fields of Behar. Taken as a whole, the lieutenant governorship consists of the richest wheat-bearing country in India, irrigated both naturally by the rivers which take their rise in the northern mountains, and artificially by the magnificent system of canals which owe their origin to British enterprise. It is studded with villages, interspersed at greater distances with commercial towns. Except during the hot season, when the crops are off the fields, the general aspect in normal years is that of a verdant and well-tilled but very monotonous plain, only merging into hilly or mountainous country at the extreme edges of the basin on the south and north. The course of the great rivers marks the prevailing slope of the land, which falls away from the Himalayas, the Rajputana uplands, and the Vindhyan plateau south-eastwards towards the Bay of Bengal. The chief natural features of the province are thus determined by the main streams, whose alluvial deposits first formed the central portion of the United Provinces; while the currents afterwards cut deep channels through the detritus they brought down from the ring of hills or uplands.

The extreme or north-western Himalayan region comprises the native state of Garhwal, with the British districts of Dehra Dun, Naini Tal, Almora and Garhwal. The economic value of this mountainous tract is almost confined to the export of forest produce. South of the Himalayas, from which it is separated by valleys or duns, is the Siwalik range, which slopes down to the fruitful plain of the Doab (two rivers), a large irregular horn-shaped tongue of land enclosed between the Ganges and Jumna. The great boundary rivers flow through low-lying valle s fertilized by their overflow or percolation, while a high bank leadis up to the central upland, which, though naturally dry and unproductive except where irrigated by wells, has been transformed by various canal systems. This favoured region may be regarded as the granary of upper India. North of the Gan es, and enclosed between that river and the Himalayas and Oumfh, lies the triangular plain of Rohilkhand. This tract presents the same general features as the Gangetic valley, varied by the damp and pestilential submontane region of the tarai on the north-east, at the foot of the Kumaon hills. South of the Jumna is the poor and backward region of Bundelkhand, comprising the districts of Jalaun, Jhansi, Hamirpur and Banda. The soil is generally rocky and infertile, and, the population impoverished, scanty and ignorant., The southernmost portion of Bundelkhand is much cut up by spurs of sandstone and granite hills, running down from the Vindhyan system; but the northern half near the Jumna has a somewhat richer soil, and comes nearer in character to the plain of Doab. Below the junction of the Ganges and the Jumna at Allahabad the country begins to assume the appearance of the Bengal plains, and once more expands northwards to the foot of the Nepal Himalayas. This tract consists of three portions, separated by the Ganges and the Gogra. The division south of the Ganges comprises portions of Allahabad, Benares and Ghazipur, together with the whole of Mirzapur, and in general features somewhat resembles Bundelkhand, but the lowlands along the river bank are more fertile. The triangular tract between the Ganges and the Gogra and the boundary of Oudh is the most fertile corner of the Gangetic plain, and contains the densest population. The trans-Gogra region presents a wilder, submontane appearance.

Oudh forms the central portion of the great Gangetic plain, sloping downwards from the Nepal Himalayas in the north-east to the Ganges on the south-west. For 60 m. along the northern border of Gonda and Bahraich districts the boundary extends close up to the lower slopes of the Himalayas, embracing the damp and unhealthy submontane region known as the larai. To the westward of this the northern boundary recedes a little from the mountain tract, and the tairai in this portion of the range has been for the most part ceded to Nepal. With the exception of a belt of government forest along the northern frontier, the rest of the province consists of a fertile and densely peopled plain. The greatest elevation (600 ft.) is attained in the jungle-clad plateau of Khairagarh in Kheri district, while the extreme south-east frontier is only 230 ft. above sea-level. Four great rivers traverse or skirt the plain of Oudh in converging courses —the Ganges, the Gumti, the Gogra and the Rapti. Numerous smaller channels seam the whole face of the country carrying off the surplus drainage in the rains, but drying up in the hot season. All the larger rivers, except the Gumti, as well as most of the smaller streams, have beds hardly sunk below the general level; and in time of floods they burst through their banks and carve out new channels. Numerous shallow ponds or jhils mark the former beds of the shifting rivers. These jhils have great value, not only as preservatives against inundation, but also as reservoirs for irrigation. The soil of Oudh consists of a rich alluvial deposit, the detritus of the Himalayan system washed down into the Ganges valley. Usually a light loam, it passes here and there into pure clay, or degenerates occasionally into barren sand. The uncultivable land consists chiefly of extensive usar plains, found in the southern and western districts, and covered by the deleterious saline efflorescence known as reh. Oudh possesses no valuable minerals. Salt was extensively manufactured during native rule, but the British government has prohibited this industry for fiscal reasons. Nodular limestone (kankar) occurs in considerable deposits, and is used as road metal.

The villages lie thickly scattered, consisting of low thatched cottages, and surrounded by patches of garden land, or groves of banyan, pipal and pakar trees. The dense foliage of the mango marks the site of almost every little homestead, no less an area than 1000 sq. m. being covered by these valuable fruit-trees. Tamarinds overhang the huts of the poorer classes, while the seat of a wealthy family may be recognized by clumps of bamboo. Plantains, guavas, jack-fruit, limes and oranges add further beauty to the village plots. The flora of the government reserved forests is rich and varied. The sal tree yields the most important timber; the finest logs are cut in the Khairagarh jungles and floated down the Gogra to Bahramghat, where they are sawn. The hard wood of the shisham is also valuable; and several other timber-trees afford materials for furniture or roofing shingle. Among the scattered jungles in various parts of the province, the mahua tree is prized alike for its edible flowers, its fruits and its timber. The jhils supply the villages with wild rice, the roots and seeds of the lotus, and the singhara water-nut. The fauna comprises most of the animals and birds common to the Gangetic plain; but the wild elephant is now practically unknown, except when a stray specimen loses its way at the foot of the hills. Tigers are now only found in any numbers in the wilds of Khairagarh. Leopards still haunt the cane-brakes and thickets along the banks of the rivers; and nilgai and antelopes abound. Game birds consist of teal and wild duck, snipe, jungle fowl and peacock.

Rivers.—The Ganges and its affluents, the Jumna, the Ramganga and the Gogra, rise in the Himalayas, and meet within the province. In addition there are the following secondary streams:.the Kalinadi and the Hindan flow through the Doab; the Chambal intersects the trans-Jumna tract; in Bundelkhand the principal streams are the Betwa and the Ken; the Ramgana, rising in Garhwal, pursues a tortuous course through Rohilkhand; the Gumti flows past Lucknow and jaunpur to join the Ganges; the trans-Gogra, region is divided into two nearly equal parts by the Rapti. These rivers are constantly modifying the adjacent lands. A small obstruction may divert the stream from one side to the other. The deep stream corrodes and cuts down the high ground; but meanwhile alluvial Hats are gradually piled up in the shallows. The tributary streams get choked at the mouth and assist the process of deposition. The clréposit is greatest when the floods of the rainy season are subsi ing. .

Climate.—The climate as a whole is hot and dry. The Himalayan districts of course are cool, and have a much greater rainfall than the plains. They are succeeded by a broad submontane belt, the tarai, which is rendered moist by the mountain torrents, and is covered by forest from end to end. This region bears the reputation of being the most unhealthy in all India, and in many parts only the acclimatized aborigines can withstand its deadly malaria. The plain country is generall warm and dry, the heat becoming more oppressive as the general Bevel of the country sinks towards Allahabad and Benares, or among the hills of Bundelkhand. There are three seasons. The cold changes gradually to the hot; the hot season gives way abruptly to the rains; and the rains again change gradually into the cold season. In point of humidity and temperature the province lies half-way between Bengal and the Punjab. The rainfall varies from 30 to 44 in. in the plains, increasing gradually towards the Himalaya. The temperature in the hot season ranges from 86° to 115° F., and even higher, in the shade.

Minerals.—Owing to the loamy nature of the soil, few minerals of any kind are found. Iron and coal exist in the southern hills. A little coal was extracted from Mirzapur in 1896, but the enterprise was dropped. Iron, copper, sapphires, &c., are said to be obtainable in the Himalaya. It has been suggested that the oily water known as telya [Jani indicates the presence of petroleum.

Agriculture.—Out of a total area of 104,075 sq. m. in the British districts of the province, over 54,000 sq. ni. are under cultivation. The course of tillage comprises two principal harvests: the kharif, or autumn crops, sown in June and reaped in October or November; and the rabi, or spring crops, sown in October or November, and reaped in March or April. The great agricultural staple is wheat, but millets and rice are also largely cultivated. Speaking broadly, rice and oilseeds predominate in the eastern and sub-Himalayan