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Rh and antiquated institutions and theories. But, under the guise of a restoration on conservative lines, Ultramontanism—notwithstanding the totally different conditions which now obtain—girds itself to work for an ideal of religion and culture in vogue during the middle ages, and at the same time holds itself justified in adopting the extreme point of view with respect to all questions which we have mentioned. Thus Ultramontanism is not to be conceived as a theological movement, but as the programme of a party whose principles are in fundamental opposition to modern culture, modern education, modern tolerance and the modern state—a party which seeks to carry out its campaign against the society of to-day, not by bridging the gulf betwixt creed and creed, but by widening it, by awakening religious fanaticism, and by closing the way to a peaceful co-operation of Catholics and non-Catholics in the highest tasks of culture and human civilization. The hierophants of this Ultramontane system are to be found in the Society of Jesus (See ). In fact, the terms jesuitical and ultramontane may, in numerous cases, be regarded as equivalent.

The origin of modern Ultramontanism is preceded and conditioned by the collapse of Catholicism in the period of the French Revolution. Pius VI. and Pius VII. were expelled from Rome, deprived of the papal states, and banished to France. In that country the Church almost completely lost her possessions; in Germany they were at least considerably curtailed; in both the hierarchical organization was shattered, while the Catholic laity surveyed the catastrophe in complete passivity. But from this severe fall the Roman Church recovered with comparative readiness, and the upward movement is contemporaneous with the rise of Ultramontanism. The birth of that system, however, cannot be fixed as a definite event by the day and the hour; nor was it created by any single personality. Rather it was the product of the first post-revolutionary generation. Neither is it merely fortuitous that the reaction proceeded from France itself. For in no other country had hostility to religion attained such a pitch or assumed such grotesque forms; and consequently in no other country did the yearning for religion manifest itself so unequivocally, when bitter experience had demonstrated the necessity of a return to law and order. And in the other states of Europe there existed, more or less, a similar desire for peace and an equal dread of a fresh outbreak of revolutionary violence. In contrast to the struggle for an ideal freedom, which was at first hailed with tempestuous delight only to reveal itself as a dangerous tyranny, men became conscious of the need for a firmly established authority in the reconstruction of society. After the violent upheaval in the political world during the last few decades, the existent—as such—increased in value, and the high estimation in which the old régime was now held led to a policy of restoration. At the same time, the repression of idealism and sentiment during the period of “illumination” was amply revenged, and the barren age of reason gave place to Romanticism. These tendencies in contemporary opinion favoured the renovation of the Roman Catholic Church. But the papacy signalized its reinstation by restoring the Society of Jesus (1814) and re-establishing the index. Even before this, the earliest germs can be traced back into the revolutionary period itself—the movement characterized above had begun working in France on the same lines; and, as it showed great zeal for the increase of the papal authority, it received the support of the Curia. True, the principles of Bonald, Lemaître, Lamennais and Lacordaire, were not carried through in the French Church without opposition; but, about the year 1850, they had become predominant there. In Germany Ultramontanism had to contend with great difficulties; for here ecclesiastical affairs were not in so desperate a case that the most drastic remedies possessed the most powerful attraction; while, in addition, the clergy were too highly educated to be willing to renounce all scientific work. The result was that a series of violent struggles took place between the old Catholicism and the new Ultramontane species (Hermes, Baader, Döllinger, &c.). But even here Ultramontanism gained ground and derived inestimable assistance from the blunders of government after government—witness the conflict of the

Prussian administration with (q.v.) of Cologne, 1837. Additional impetus was also lent by the revolution of 1848.

The growth of the Jesuitical influence at Rome more especially after the return of Pius IX. from exile implied a more definite protection of Ultramontanism by the papacy. The proclamation of the dogma of the immaculate conception in 1854 was more than the decision of an old and vexed theological problem; it was an act of conformity to a pietistic type especially represented by the Jesuits. The Syllabus of 1864, however, carried with it a recognition of the Ultramontane condemnation of all modern culture (see the articles ../Pius IX, and ../Syllabus). Finally, in the Vatican Council, the Jesuits saw another of their favourite theories—that of papal infallibility—elevated to the status of a dogma of the Church (see ../Vatican Council and ../Infallibility).

Ultramontanism, again, though essentially averse from all forms of progress, had displayed great dexterity in utilizing the opportunities presented to it by modern life. Where it appeared advisable, it has formed itself into a political party, as for instance, the Centre Party in Germany. It has shown extreme activity in the creation of a press devoted to its interests, and has consolidated its influence by the formation of an extensive league-system. In the episcopacy it has numerous adherents; it has made progress in the universities, and most of the learned and theological reviews are conducted in its spirit.

Whether the powerful position of this movement within the Roman Catholic Church be an advantage for that Church itself cannot be discussed here. The answer to the problem will mainly depend on the estimate which we form of the Society of Jesus and its whole activity. The outstanding event in the latest history of Ultramontanism is the separation between Church and state in France (1904), by which the republic has endeavoured to break the influence of this party. Similarly, the dissolution of the German Reichstag in December 1906 was a weapon directed against Ultramontanism; and, though the elections of 1907 failed to diminish the numbers of the Centre, they rendered possible the formation of a majority, in face of which that system forfeited the influence it had previously possessed.

ULUGH BEG, MIRZA MAHOMMED BEN SHAH ROK (1394–1449), Persian astronomer, son of the shah Rok and grandson of Timur, succeeded his father as prince of Samarkand in 1447, after having for years taken part in the government, and was murdered in 1449 by his eldest son. He erected an observatory at Samarkand, from which were issued tables of the sun, moon and planets, with an interesting introduction, which throws much light on the trigonometry and astronomical methods then in use (Prolégoméues des lables aslrouomiques d'Ouloug Beg, ed. by Sédillot, Paris, 1847, and translated by the same, 1853). The serious errors which he found in the Arabian star catalogues (which were simply copied from Ptolemy, adding the effect of precession to the longitudes) induced him to redetermine the positions of 992 fixed stars, to which he added 27 stars from Al Súfi’s catalogue, which were too far south to be observed at Samarkand,