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Rh reservoir behind it, and an amphitheatre. Both belong probably to the imperial period, and so does a very large villa (the substructures of which are preserved), by some attributed, but wrongly, to Cicero, by others to Tiberius, near the latter. Between the amphitheatre and the theatre is the site of the Forum, of which nothing is now visible, and to the south on a projecting spur were tombs of the Roman period. There are also many remains of houses and villas. The citadel—which stood on the highest point an abrupt rock—was approached only on one side, that towards the city, and even here by a steep ascent of 150 ft. Upon it remains of the medieval castle, which stood here until 1191, alone are visible. The city walls, of which some remains still exist below the theatre, are built of blocks of the native “ lapis Albanus ” or peperino. They probably belong to the republican period. Below them is a well-house, with a roof formed of a pointed arch—generally held to go back to a somewhat remote antiquity, but hardly with sufficient reason. The most interesting associations of the city are those connected with Cicero, whose favourite residence and retreat for study and literary work was at, or rather near, Tusculum. It was here that he composed his celebrated Tusculan Disputations and other philosophical works. Much has been written on the position of his villa, but its true site still remains doubtful. The theory, which places it at or near Grotta Ferrata, some distance farther to the west, has most evidence to support it. Although Cicero (Pro Sestio, 43) speaks of his own house as being insignificant in size compared to that of his neighbour Gabinius, yet we gather from other notices in various parts of his works that it was a considerable building. It comprised two gymnasia (Div. i. 5), with covered portions for exercise and philosophical discussion (Tusc. Disp. ii. 3). One of these, which stood on higher ground, was called “ the Lyceum,” and contained a library (Div. ii. 3); the other, on a lower site, shaded by rows of trees, was called “ the Academy.” The main building contained a covered portions, or cloister, with apsi dal recesses (exedrae) containing seats (see Ad Fam. vii. 23). It also had bathrooms (Ad Fam. xiv. 20), and contained a number of works of art, both pictures and statues in bronze and marble (Ep. ad Att. i. 1, 8, 9, 10). The central atrium appears to have been small, as Cicero speaks of it as an atriolum (Ad Quint. Fr. iii. 1). The cost of this and the other house which he built at Pompeii led to his being burdened with debt (Ep. ad Att. ii. 1). Nothing now exists which can be asserted to be part of Cicero's villa with any degree of certainty. During the imperial period little is recorded about Tusculum; but soon after the transference of the seat of empire to Constantinople it became a very important stronghold, and for some centuries its counts occupied a leading position in Rome and were specially influential in the selection of the popes. During the 12th century there were constant struggles between Rome and Tusculum, and towards the close of the century (1191) the Romans, supported by the German emperor, gained the upper hand, and the walls of Tusculum, together with the whole city, were destroyed.

(T. As.)

TUSKEGEE, a town and county-seat of Macon county, Alabama, U.S.A., in the east part of the state, about 40 m. E. of Montgomery. Pop. (1900) 2170; (1910) 2803. It is served by the Tuskegee railway, which connects it with Chehaw, 5 m. distant, on the Western railway of Alabama. The city manufactures cotton seed. Tuskegee is chiefly known for its educational institutions-the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute and the Alabama Conference Female College (Methodist Episcopal Church, South; opened 1856). The former was founded in 1880 by an act of the state legislature as the Tuskegee State Normal School, and was opened in July 1881 by Booker T. Washington for the purpose of giving an industrial education to negroes; in 1893 it was incorporated under its present name. In 1899 the national Congress granted to the school 25,000 acres of mineral lands, of which 20,000 acres, valued at $200,000, were unsold in 1909. Andrew Carnegie gave $600,000 to the institute in 1903, and the institute has a Carnegie library (1902), with about 1 5,000 volumes in 1909. In 1909 the endowment was about $1,389,600, and the school property was valued at about $I,117,660. It had in 1909 a property of 2345 acres (of which 1000 were farm lands, 1145 pasture and wood lands, and 200 school campus), and 100 buildings, many of brick, and nearly all designed and constructed, even to the making of the bricks, by the teachers and students. The state of Alabama appropriated $2000 for teachers' salaries in 1880, increased the appropriation to $3000 in 1884, and for many years gave $4 500 annually; the school receives $10,000 annually from the John F. Slater Fund, and the same sum from the General Education Board. The institute comprises an academic department (in which all students are enrolled) with a seven years' course, the Phelps Hall bible training school (1892), with a three years course, and departments of mechanical industries, industries for girls, and agriculture. The department of agriculture has an experiment station, established by the state in 1896, in which important experiments in cotton breeding have been carried on. There are a farm, a large truck garden, an orchard, and a bakery and canning factory. Forty different industries are taught. Cooking schools and night schools are carried on by the institute in the town of Tuskegee. In 1908–1909 the enrolment was 1494 students, of whom about one-quarter were women, and there were 167 teachers, all negroes. Tuition in the institute is free; board and living cost $8.50 a month; day students are allowed to “work-out” $1.50–$3.00 a month of this amount, and night students may thus pay all their expenses. At Tuskegee under the auspices of the institute are held the annual negro conferences (begun in 1891) and monthly farmers' institutes (begun in 1897); and short courses in agriculture (begun in 1904) are conducted. Farmers' institutes are held throughout the South by teachers of the school. In 1905 the institute took up the work of rural school extension. A model negro village (South Greenwood) has been built west of the institute grounds on land bought by the institute in 1901. Affiliated with the institute and having its headquarters in Tuskegee is the National Negro Business League (1900). The success of the institute is due primarily to its founder and principal, Booker T. Washington, and to the efficient board of trustees, which has included such men as .Robert C. Ogden and Seth Low. Tuskegee was settled about 1800.

TUSSAUD, MARIE (1760–1850), founder of “Madame Tussaud’s Exhibition” of wax figures in London, was born in Berne in 1760 the daughter of Joseph Grosholtz (d. 1760), an army officer. Her uncle, a doctor of Berne, John Christopher Curtius, had attracted the attention of the prince of Conti by his beautiful anatomical wax models, and had been induced to move to Paris, abandon his profession, and practice wax modeling as a fine art. His house became the resort of many of the talented men of the day, and here he brought his niece at the age of six, and taught her to model in wax. She became such an adept that she early modeled many of the great people of France, and was finally sent for to study at the palace of Versailles to instruct the sister of Louis XVI., Mme Elisabeth, in the popular craze. It was from Curtius’s exhibition that the mob obtained the busts of Necker and the duke of Orleans that were carried by the procession when on the 12th of July 1789 the first blood of the French Revolution was shed. During the terrible days that followed Marie Grosholtz was called upon to model the heads of many of the prominent leaders and victims of the Revolution, and was herself for three months a prisoner having fallen under the suspicion of the committee of public safety. In 1794 she married a Frenchman named Tussaud, from whom she was separated in 1800. Her uncle having died in the former year, after some difficulty she secured permission from Napoleon to leave France, and she took with her to London the nucleus of her collection from the cabinet de cire