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Rh in the immigration from the Central Asian plateau of such species as could adapt themselves to the dry climate and soil, in the disappearance of European and Altaic species from all the more arid parts of the region, in the survival of steppe species, and in the adaptation of many of the existing species to the needs of an arid and extreme climate and a saline soil. The Pamir vegetation and that of the Aral-Caspian steppes constitute two types with numberless intermediate gradations.

There is no arboreal vegetation on the Pamir, except a few willows and tamarisks along the rivers. Mountain and valley alike are carpeted with soft grass, various species of Festuca predominating. In the immediate vicinity of water the sedge (Carex physoides) grows, and sporadic patches of Allium. To these may be added a Few Ranunculaceae, some Myosotis, the common Taraxacum, one species of Chamomilla, and a few Leguminosae. In the north and west the Stipa of the Russian steppes supersedes Festuca and affords splendid pasture for the herds of the Kara-Kirghiz. In the gorges and on the better-watered slopes of the mountains the herbaceous vegetation becomes luxuriant. Besides the above-named there are many other Gramineae, such as Lasiagrostis splendens, the whole seas of Scabiosae. Eremurus, 6 to 7 ft. in height, forms thickets along with Scorodosma foetida. The northern slopes of the Alai chain are richer in trees. Up to 12,000 ft. full-grown specimens occur of the archa or juniper (Juniperus pseudo-Sabina), characteristic of the whole northern slopes of the Turkestan highlands, the poplar, spruces, cedars, a very few birches (B. Sogdiana), and a copious undergrowth of shrubs familiar in European gardens, such as Rhododendron chrysanthum, Sorbus aucuparia (rowan), Berberis heteropoda (berberry), Lonicera Tatarica (honeysuckle) and Crataegus (hawthorn). Farther east and north comes the Turkestan pine (Picea Schrenkiana), while at lower levels there grow willows, black and white poplars, tamarisk, Celtis, as well as Elaeagnus (wild olive), Hippopliae rhamnoides (sallow thorn), Rubus fructicosus (blackberry), Prunus spinosa (blackthorn) and P. Armeniaca (apricot). The characteristic poplar, Populus diversifolia, and the dwarf Acer Lobelii—very different from the European maple—also occur.

The above applies to most of the highlands of the Tian-shan. The drier southern slopes are quite devoid of arboreal vegetation. On the northern slopes, at the higher levels, Juniperus pseudo-Sabina is the only tree that grows on the mountains, and luxuriant meadow grasses cover the syrts. Lower down, at 7500 to 8000 ft. the coniferous zone begins, characterized by the Picea Schrenkiana. Of course the juniper and a few other deciduous trees also occur. The richest zone is that which comes next, extending downwards to 5000 and 4500 ft. There woods of birch, several species of poplar, the maple (Acer Semenovii), and thick underwoods spread over the mountain slopes. Orchards of apple and apricot surround the villages. The meadows are clothed with a rich vegetation—numberless Paeoniae, Scabiosae, Convolvulaceae, Campanulae, Eremurus, Umbelliferae, Gallium, Rosaceae, Altheae, Glycyrrhizae, Scorodosma foetida and Gramineae. But as soon as the soil loses its fertile humus it produces only a few Phlomis, Alhagi camelorum, Psammae, Salsolaceae, Artemisiae, Peganum and some poppies and Chamomillae, but only in the spring. The invading steppe plants appear everywhere in patches in the Turkestan meadows.

The “culture” or “apricot” zone is followed by the prairie belt, in which black-earth plants (Stipa and the like) struggle for existence against invading Central Asian forms. And then come the lowlands and deserts with their moving sandy barkhans, shors and takyrs (see ). Two species of poplar (P. pruinosa and P. diversifolia), Elaeagnus angusttfolia, the ash, and a few willows grow along the rivers. Large areas are wholly destitute of vegetation, and after crossing 100 m. of such a desert the traveller will occasionally come upon a forest of saksaul (Anabasis Ammodendron). Contorted stems, sometimes of considerable thickness, very hard, and covered with a grey cracked bark, rise out of the sand, bearing green plumes with small greyish leaves and pink fruit. Sometimes the tree is a mere knot peeping above the sand with a sheaf of thin branches. In spring, however, the steppe assumes quite another aspect, being clothed, except where the sands are shifting, with an abundance of vegetation. Persian species penetrate into Bokhara and the region of the upper Amu.

Vegetable Products.—As already stated the climate of Turkestan varies considerably from north to south. In Akmolinsk and Semiryechensk most of the kinds of corn which characterize Middle Russia are grown. South of the Chu and the Syr-darya gardening is a considerable industry; and, although rye and wheat continue to be the chief crops, the cultivation of the apple, and especially of the apricot, acquired importance. Attempts are also made to cultivate the vine. The inhabitants of the neighbourhood of Tashkent and Samarkand, as well as those of the much more northern but better sheltered Kulja oasis, add the cultivation of the almond, pomegranate and fig. Vines are grown and cotton planted in those districts. Finally, about Khojent and in Ferghana, where the climate is milder still, the vine and the pistachio tree cover the hills, while agriculture and horticulture have reached a high degree of perfection. Successful attempts are being made to grow the tea-plant in the Transcaspian region. Large numbers of oleaginous plants are cultivated, such as sunflower.

Agriculture.—The arable land, being limited to the irrigated terraces of loess, occupies little more than 2 % of the whole area of West Turkestan. The remainder is divided between pasture land (less than 44%) and desert (54%). Owing to a very equitable distribution of irrigation water in accordance with Moslem law, agriculture and gardening have reached a high stage of development in the oases. Altogether close upon 4,000,000 acres are irrigated, and the crops are usually taken every year. Wheat, barley, millet, pease, lentils, rice, sorghum, lucerne and cotton are the chief agricultural products. Carrots, melons, vegetable marrows, cucumbers and onions are extensively grown. Rye and oats are cultivated at Kazalinsk and Kopal. Corn is exported. Owing to the irrigation, total failure of crops and consequent famines are unknown, unless among the Kirghiz shepherds. The kitchen gardens of the Mahommedans are, as a rule, admirably kept. Potatoes are grown only by the Russians. The cultivation of cotton is extending rapidly—from 1300 acres in 1883 to 531,000 acres in 1902, of which 402,000 acres were in Ferghana. Sericulture, a growing industry, is chiefly carried on in Ferghana, whence silk cocoons are an important item of export, the output having doubled between 1892 and 1903 (3869 tons). Livestock breeding is extensively pursued. The flocks of sheep on the Kirghiz steppe are so large that the proprietors themselves do not know their exact numbers.

Minerals.—The mineral wealth of Turkestan is considerable. Traces of auriferous sands have been discovered at many places, but the percentage of gold is too poor to make the working remunerative. Silver, lead and iron ores occur in several localities; but the want of fuel is an obstacle to their exploitation. The vast coal-beds of Kulja and some inferior ones in Samarkand are not seriously worked. The petroleum wells of Ferghana and the beds of graphite about Zairamnor are neglected. There are abundant deposits of gypsum, alum, kaolin, marble and similar materials. Asphalt is obtained in Ferghana. Notwithstanding the salt springs of Ferghana and Syr-darya, the salt lakes of the region, and the rock-salt strata of the Alexander Mountains, salt is imported.

Industry and Trade.—Turkestan has no manufacturing industry carried on by means of machinery, except distilleries and establishments for dressing raw cotton. These last have greatly increased in number; over a score are driven by steam and about a hundred by water. But there is a great variety of artisan work, such as copper and brass, paper, knives (at Bokhara), silver filigree, shoes, caps (at Samarkand and Andijan) and carpets; but most of these have been for some time declining and now stand at a rather low level. Trade is very actively carried on. Tashkent and Bokhara are the chief commercial centres, the principal articles of export to Russia, via Orenburg and Semipalatinsk, being raw cotton and silk, cattle and their products, while manufactured wares are imported in return. There is also an import and export trade to and from Urumchi and China, via Kulja and Ak-su.

Population.—Turkestan has been the theatre of so many migrations and conquests that its present population could not fail to be very mixed. Both Aryans and Mongols have their representatives there, the former settled for the most part, the latter chiefly nomad. The Ural-Altaians are numerically the predominant element, and consist of Turkomans, Kirghiz, Uzbegs and Sarts. The Turkomans inhabit chiefly the Transcaspian region. They number less than a quarter of a million. The Kara-Kalpaks (“Black Bonnets”) number about 104,000. They are supposed to be recent immigrants to Syr-darya, having come from the former Bulgarian Empire on the middle Volga. Their language and habits are the same as those of the Kirghiz; but for the last century and a half they have had some acquaintance with agriculture. Their pacific temper exposed them to the raids of the Kirghiz, who compelled them first to settle in Dzungaria, then to move their dwellings several times, and ultimately (in 1742) to recognize the sovereignty of Russia. Even since that time they have been driven by the persecution of their old enemies to cross the Aral-Caspian steppes and seek refuge near Astrakhan. The real masters of the steppes and highlands of Turkestan are the Kirghiz, of whom there are two branches—the Kazak (Cossack) Kirghiz, who number about 3,787,000, and the Kara (Black) Kirghiz or Burut, who number nearly 202,000. The Uzbegs, who played a predominant political part in Turkestan before the Russian conquest, are of Turko-Tatar origin and speak a pure Jagatai (Turkish) dialect; but they are mixed to a great extent with Persians, Kirghiz and Mongols. They are subdivided into clans, and lead a semi-nomadic life, preserving most of the attractive features of their Turkish congeners—especially their honesty and independence. They number some 726,500 in