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Rh eighteenth century. They are strong, hardy, and courageous, and make first-rate horsemen. Their early dealings with the British government were inclined to turbulence, and they were concerned in the Miranzai expeditions of 1851 and 1855 (see ). But the only expedition specially sent against them was the Kurram expedition of 1856 (see ). Since then they have settled down and engaged in trade. During the Second Afghan War they supplied Sir Frederick Roberts with guides and provisions. In 1892 they voluntarily accepted British administration, and they now furnish a large part of the tribal militia in the Kurram Valley.

TURIN, a city of Piedmont, Italy, capital of the province of Turin, formerly of the kingdom of Sardinia until 1860, and of Italy till the removal of the seat of government to Florence in 1865. Pop. (1906), 277,121 (town), 361,720 (commune), with a garrison of 8500, the town being the headquarters of the I. army corps. The area of the city is 4155 acres, and its octroi circle measures nearly 9 m. Its geographical position is excellent; built upon alluvial soil 784 ft. above sea-level at a short distance from the Alps, it stands upon the river Po, which here runs from south to north just above the confluence of the Dora Riparia. The streets and avenues, almost all of which are straight, cut each other at right angles, forming blocks of houses, here as elsewhere called “ islands.” As viewed from the east the city stands out boldly against the Alps. Taken as a whole it is modern in aspect, but its regularity of form is in reality derived from the ancient Roman town of Augusta Taurinorum, which formed its nucleus. The mean temperature at Turin (1871–1900) is 53° F. (winter 35°, summer 71°), with an average maximum of 90°, and an average minimum of 17°. Mists are frequent in the winter mornings, and to a less degree in autumn. Snow falls on an average only on seven days per annum. The rainfall averages 34 in.

The cathedral of St John the Baptist is a cruciform Renaissance building dating from 1492–1498, by the Florentine Meo da Caprina. The site was first occupied by a church erected, it is said, by the Lombard duke Agilulf (7th century). Behind the high altar of the cathedral (from which it is separated by a glass screen) is the chapel of the Sudario or Sindone, built (1657–1694) by Guarini as a royal burial-place. The “ sudario ” from which it takes its name is asserted to be the shroud in which Joseph of Arimathea wrapped the body of Jesus. La Beata Vergine della Consolata, another of Guarini's Works, has a tower which originally belonged to the church of St Andrew, founded by the monk Bruning in 1014, and attracts attention by Vincenzo Vela's beautiful kneeling statues of Queen Maria Teresa and Queen Maria Adelaide, as well as by the image of the Madonna, which has the credit of having warded off the cholera in 1835. Other churches of some note are San Filippo Neri (1672–1772), the dome of which fell in just as it was approaching completion under the hands of Guarini and was restored by Juvara, and La Gran Madre de Dio, erected to commemorate the return of the royal family in 1814. Of the secular buildings the more interesting are the Palazzo Madama, first erected by William of Montferrat at the close of the 13th century on the Roman east gate of the town, remains of the towers of which were incorporated in it, and owing its name to the widow of Charles Emmanuel II., who added the west façade and the handsome double flight of steps from Juvara's designs; and the extensive royal palace begun in the 17th century. Many of the palaces have fine pillared courtyards of the baroque period, some of which are the work of Guarini. For the Porta Palatina and other remains of the ancient city walls see below. The citadel, erected in 1565, has been almost entirely demolished. There is practically nothing of the Renaissance period except the cathedral. The Castello del Valentino is a building partly in the French style of the middle of the 16th century. The university, founded in 1400 by Lodovico di Acaja, has faculties of jurisprudence, medicine and surgery, literature and philosophy, and the mathematical, physical and natural sciences. The number of students is about 2500. The old university buildings erected in 1713 by the Genoese architect Ricca proved too small; and new buildings, fitted more especially for the medical and scientific departments, have been erected. The original building contains the valuable library (now national), many of the treasures of which were destroyed by fire in 1906, and a collection of Roman antiquities. The academy of sciences was founded in 1757. It occupies a building erected in 1687 by Guarini as a Jesuit college. The museum of antiquities and the picture gallery, of which it has the custody, are both of high interest—the former for the local antiquities of Piedmont and Sardinia (notably from Industria) and for the Egyptian treasures collected by Donati and Drovetti, and the latter for its Van Dycks and pictures by north Italian masters. There is a museum of zoology and mineralogy in Palazzo Carignano (another of Guarini's buildings), and the royal palace contains the royal armoury (a fine collection made by Charles Albert in 1833) and the royal library with its rich manuscript collection and its 20,000 drawings, among which are sketches by Raphael, Michelangelo, and Leonardo da Vinci. The civic museum has a great variety of artistic and literary curiosities, among them a remarkable collection of autographs and the Lombard missal (1490).

Turin was always a place of importance and military strength, in spite of numerous vicissitudes, till at length it was made the chief town of Piedmont by Amadeus, first duke of Savoy. Under Emmanuel Philibert it became the usual residence of the ducal family, and in 1515 the bishopric was raised to metropolitan rank by Leo X. Between 1536 and 1562 Turin was occupied by the French, and in 1630 it lost 8000 of its citizens by the plague. The French were masters once more from 1640 to 1706, and again from 1798 till 1814, when Piedmont was restored to the house of Savoy. From 1860 to 1865 Turin was the capital of Italy.

The ancient Augusta Taurinorum was a city of Gallia Cisalpina, the chief town of the Taurini. The natural advantages of its site and its position with relation to the pass over the Alpis