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 branches of the Andes, and the strike of the folds which compose it is usually from south-west to north-east. The Caribbean chain along the north coast is part of the Antillean system, and here the strike of the folds is nearly west to east or west-south-west to east-north-east. The two systems of folds meet about Barquisimeto, where the structure becomes very complex and is not thoroughly understood. The rocks of Falcón are believed by Sievers to belong to the Andean system; while the outlying peninsula of Paraguaná probably belongs, geologically, to the same massif as Goajira and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Maria in Colombia. The oldest rocks in the country are the granites, gneisses, &c., of the southern massif and the crystalline schists which form the axis of the Cordillera and the Caribbean chain. In the latter range a few Ordovician fossils have been found, but in general the oldest strata which have yielded organic remains belong to the Cretaceous system. The Cretaceous beds form a band along each side of the Cordillera and along the southern flank of the Caribbean chain, and they spread over the greater part of the provinces of Falcon and Lara. The Lower Cretaceous consists chiefly of sandstones and shales and the Middle Cretaceous of very fossiliferous limestone. There is considerable difference of opinion as to the chronology of the succeeding beds, and the boundary between the Cretaceous and Tertiary systems is drawn at various horizons by different observers. The Cerro de Oro series is the most important group of these beds and takes a considerable share in the formation of the mountain ranges. It belongs either to the Upper Cretaceous or to the Lower Tertiary, or possibly in part to the one and in part to the other.

Climate.—The climate of Venezuela is everywhere tropical except where modified by altitude. In the Maritime Andes at and above the altitude of Carácas it may be described as semi-tropical, and in the still higher regions of western Venezuela it approaches the mild temperate. On the coast and the northern slopes of the Maritime Andes the tropical heat is greatly modified by the trade-winds. At La Guaira the mean temperature for the year is 85° F., at Carácas (3025 ft.) it is 71·2° (or 66·2° according to an official return), at Cumaná it is 83°, at Valencia 76°, Coro 82°, Barquisimeto 78°, Yaritagua 80·6°, Mérida 61°, Trujillo 72°, and Maracaibo 81°. South of the sierras, however, the climate is much drier and hotter. The low temperatures of the night in these regions lower the mean annual temperatures. At Calabozo, for instance, the mean is about 88°, though the maximum in summer is not far from 100°. At Ciudad Bolívar, which, is less sheltered from the trade-winds, the mean is 83° and the maximum 91·4°. The lowest temperatures recorded in official reports are those of Mucuchíes, in the state of Mérida, where the maximum is 68°, the minimum 43° and the mean 56°. The year is divided into two seasons, the dry and wet, the latter occurring from April to October, when the temperature is also the highest. On the llanos the dry season destroys the pasturage completely; dries up the small streams and lagoons, and compels many animals of semi-aquatic habits to aestivate. At Carácas the annual rainfall ranged from 602 to 863 millimetres between 1894 and 1902. In general the climate of Venezuela is healthy wherever the ocean winds have free access. Sheltered places in the lowlands, especially near streams and lagoons, are malarial and enervating, and at some points on the coast are subject to dangerous fevers. The sanitary condition is generally bad, and many forms of disease prevail that are not due to the climate.

Fauna.—The fauna and flora of Venezuela are similar in nearly all respects to those of the neighbouring regions of Guiana, Brazil and Colombia, the open llanos of the Orinoco being something of a neutral district between the great forested regions on the E., S. and W. Among the animals indigenous to the country are seven species of the cat family, including the puma, the jaguar and the ocelot; the wild dog (Canis Azarae); several representatives of the marten family, including two species of Galictis, two of the otter (Lutra brasiliensis and L. pieronura) and one of the skunk; two species of bear (Ursus ornatus and U. nasutus); and the "kinkajou." There are six species of monkey corresponding to those of Guiana and the Amazon valley, the sloth and ant-eater, 12 known genera of rodents, including many species of Mures, the cavy, the capybara, the paca, the nutria, the agouti, the tree porcupine, Loncheres cristata, Echimys cayen and the Brazilian hare. Among the pachyderms the tapir is found in the forests of the Orinoco. There are two species of the peccary, Dicotyles torquatus and D. labiatus. There are also 2 species of deer, Cervus rufus and C. simplicornis. There are 3 species of opossum. On the coast and in the Orinoco there may be found the manatee and the dolphin. The Reptilia include 11 species of the crocodile, alligator and lizard, including the savage jacaré of the Amazon, several species of turtle, 4 species of batrachians, and 29 species of serpents, including the striped rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus), Lachesis mutus, and a rather rare species of Cophias. Among the non-venomous species, the commonest are the boa-constrictor, the anaconda (Eunectes murinus) and the Coluber variabilis. Bird life is represented chiefly by migratory species, particularly of genera that inhabit the shores of streams and lagoons. The shallow lagoons of the llanos, like those of the Argentine pampas, are favourite fishing grounds for these birds. In the garzeros of Venezuela are to be found nearly every kind of heron, crane, stork and ibis, together with an incredible number of Grallatores. Ducks are also numerous in species and individuals, including a small bird called the guiriri, in imitation of its cry. Birds of prey are numerous. One species, the guacharo (Steatornis caripensis), or oil-bird, is commonly said to occur only in Venezuela, though it is found in Colombia and Ecuador also. They live in caves, especially in Caripe, and are caught in large numbers for the oil extracted from them, which is commonly known as "Caripe butter." The bell-bird (Chasmorhynchus carunculatus) is common in the forests of the Orinoco. Insect life is perhaps poorer and less varied than in Brazil, but in the 14 orders of insects there are no less than 98 families, each including many genera and species. There are 8 families of Coleoptera, 6 of Orthoptera, 23 of Hymenoptera, 14 of Lepidoptera and 7 of Diptera. Locusts are very numerous in the interior, and commit great ravages. Molluscs are common on the coasts, including the pearl oyster, and in the fresh-water streams and lakes. The coral polyp is also found in Venezuelan waters. The domestic animals