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 to the ( 1899–1900 ). In 1902–1903 a survey of the -Somali borderlands between and the upper  was executed by Captain P. Maud of the. Military operations during 1901–4 led to a more accurate knowledge of the south-eastern parts of the  and of the adjacent districts of.

The Somaliland  extends along the  for about 400 m. from the Lahadu Wells, near, in the west, to Bandar Ziyada in 49 , 180 m. W. of Cape Guardafui, and stretches from the coast inland for a breadth varying from 80 to 220 m. The  is bounded W. by , S.W. by , and S.E. and E. by. About 50,000 persons are settled in the coast towns; the rest are.

, &c.—Physically the may be described as almost mountainous in contrast with the somewhat monotonous plains of the interior. Between the plateau and Cape Guardafui the coast ranges maintain a mean altitude of from 4000 to 5000 ft., and fall generally in steep escarpments down to the narrow strip of sandy lowlands skirting the. At some points the rugged cliffs, furrowed by deep ravines, approach close to the sea; elsewhere the hills leave a considerable maritime plain between their base and the shore line. South of are two ranges nearly parallel with the coast. They increase in elevation landwards, culminating in the inner and loftier Golis range, about 9500 ft. high, its crest covered with mountain. The country between the two ranges is known as Guban. South of the Golis the ground falls gradually to the central plateau known as the Haud, a waterless but not infertile district. The Haud (only the northern part of which is territory—the rest is ) consists partly of , the haud of the Somali, partly of rolling grass plains, called ban, and partly of semi- country called aror. Westward of the ascent to the high country is not so abrupt as in the east but is made by several steps, the mountains forming a chaotic mass. Eastwards the mountain system, the Jebel Sangeli, maintains the same general character as far as Bandar Gori (Las Korai), where the precipitous northern cliffs approach within 200 or 300 yards of the gulf, their bare brown rocks and clays presenting the same uninviting appearance as the light brown hills skirting the. Immediately south of the Jebel Sangeli are the comparatively fertile Jidali and Gebi districts or river valleys—the Gebi flowing east in the direction of Ras Hafun, while the Jidali has a southerly course towards the Wadi Nogal. Its waters are lost in the arid stony plateau of the Sorl. To this succeeds the Nogal district, separated both from the Sorl and the Haud by ranges of low hills. The Nogal and the neighbouring regions of the Haud are also known, from the tribes inhabiting them, as the Dolbahanta country. The prevailing formations appear to be which are veined with white, and underlie old sedimentary brown  and  formations.

The average annual at  is about 8 in., and more than half of this amount has fallen in one day. The mean annual is greater on the slopes of the ranges by which the moisture bearing clouds are intercepted. These slopes are the home of aromatic flora which yields and.

The chief domestic animals are the and the, both of prime stock. The make excellent mounts, swift and hardy; and the extensive  trade is everywhere carried on exclusively by means of these pack-animals. The Somali have also large herds of —, and. They possess a hardy breed of, for which the Dolbahanta country is famed.

Chief Towns.— (q.v.) is the capital and chief seaport of the. About 45 m. west of is the exposed port of Būlhar. Close to the frontier stands the seaport of  (q.v.). East of are Las Korai, Karam, Hais and other small seaports. Inland the most important settlement is Hargeisa (i.e. little ), 60 m. S.S.W. of Būlhar, a centre for from  and Ogaden. Sheikh, Burao and Bohotle are all on the route from Ogaden to.

Industries and Trade.—Fibre is obtained from the, this industry being in the hands of women; are reared for the sake of their feathers, and large quantities of  and  are collected. But the wealth of the people consists chiefly in their livestock. Trade is largely with and the Ogaden country—both  possessions. The important exports are and, fibre, , ,  feathers, , , livestock,  from  and ; the shells being found along the coast from  to beyond. There is also a profitable fishery in the hands of. The imports are mainly white, grey shirting, , , and. is displacing as the staple food of the Somali. The trade with suffers owing to the absence of, which the. Thus in 1899–1900 the total value of trade was 751,900, the  being then but just begun; in 1902–1903 , the  being completed during the year, the value of trade was but  487,900. The average annual value of trade for 1904–1909 was about 500,000.

History.—An, with its capital at , was founded by Koreishite immigrants from the  in, it is said, the 7 th century  In the 13 th century it had become a comparatively powerful state, known as the empire of Adel. In the 16 th century the capital of the state (in which influence was a decreasing factor) was transferred to  (q.v.). The state was greatly harassed by invaders in the 17 th century, and broke up into a number of petty independent  and  under Somali. became a dependency of and thus nominally part of the. The connexion with the Somali coast dates from the early years of the 19 th century; the first treaty between the   and Somali having been signed in 1827 after the plundering of an   ship by the Habr-Wal. In 1840 various treaties were concluded by Captain Robert Moresby of the  “on the part of the  Government in ” with the  of Tajura and the  of, who engaged not to enter into treaties with any other foreign power. At the same time Musha Island, at the entrance to the Gulf of Tajura, was bought by the  “for ten bags of ,” Bab Island, in the same gulf, and Aubad Island, off, were also purchased, the object of the  being to obtain a suitable place “for the harbour of their  without any prohibition whatever.” From this time onward the  government exercised considerable influence on the Somali coast, but   authority was not definitely established, and in 1854 's expedition was attacked at. In 1874–1875 the ambition of, of , who claimed jurisdiction over the whole coast as far as Cape Guardafui, led him to occupy the ports of Tajura,  and Būlhar as well as  in the hinterland. also obtained (July 1875 ) a from the  of  making over  to  in return for an increase of  15,000 yearly to the tribute paid to. In 1884, in consequence of the revolt of in the  , the   were withdrawn. Thereupon, partly to secure the route to the East via the , which the occupation of the country by another power might menace, occupied ,  and Būlhar, officials being sent from  to govern the ports. With respect to  was given the option of resuming possession, but advantage was not taken of the offer (see Lord Cromer's Modern Egypt, 1908, vol. ii.). During 1884, 1885 , 1886 treaties guaranteeing  protection were concluded with various Somali  and in 1888 the limits of the   and  spheres were defined, all claims to   jurisdiction in the Gulf of Tajura and the islands of Musha and Bab being abandoned. The other inland boundaries of the were defined by agreements with  ( 1894 ) and  ( 1897 ).

In 1899 troubles arose between the administration and a of the Habr Suleiman Ogaden, who had acquired great influence in the Dolbahanta country and had married into the Dolbahanta Ali Gheri. This, Mahommed bin Abdullah by name, had made several , where he had attached himself to a sect which enjoined strict observance of the tenets of and placed an interdiction on the use of the leaves of the kat plant—much sought after by the coast  and Somali for their stimulating and intoxicating properties. At first the 's influence was exerted for good, and he kept the over whom he had control at peace. Accredited with the possession of supernatural powers he gathered around him a strong following. In 1899 the began raiding  friendly to the  ; in August of that year he occupied Burao, 80 m. south and east of, and declared himself the. In the autumn of 1900 the was again harassing the  on the southern border of the    and the neighbouring  districts. The hostile to the  sought   protection, and Colonel (afterwards Sir) E. J. E. Swayne raised a Somali levy of 1500 men, and in May 1901 occupied Burao.