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 in 1903-1904, alleged by the Inland Revenue Commissioners to be due to the disappearance of the small brewer. The practice of private brewing exhibits a still greater decline—from 272 to 84 in the years named. Notwithstanding the enormous turnover and output and the large capital invested, neither distilling nor brewing gives employment to many hands, the figures for 1901 being 1330 maltsters, 2052 brewers and 1970 distillers.

(f) Miscellaneous.—Paper, stationery and printing are industries in which Scotland has always occupied a foremost position. A paper mill was erected in 1675 at Dalry on the Water of Leith in which French operatives were employed to give instruction, with the result, in the words of the proprietors, that “grey and blue paper was produced much finer than ever was done before in the kingdom.” Midlothian has never lost the lead then secured. The paper mills at Penicuik and elsewhere in the vale of the Esk and around Edinburgh are flourishing concerns, and the industry is also vigorously conducted near Aberdeen. Stationery is largely manufactured at Glasgow, Aberdeen and Edinburgh. In 1901 the number of persons employed in the paper and stationery industries amounted to 19,602. Ever since it was established by Andrew Myllar and Walter Chepman, early in the 16th century, the Edinburgh press has been renowned for the beauty and excellence of its typography, a large proportion of the books issued by London publishers emanating from the printing works of the Scottish capital. Printing is also extensively carried on in Glasgow and Aberdeen, and Cupar once enjoyed considerable repute for its press. The number of persons engaged in the production of books and other printed matter (including lithographers, Copper, steel plate and “process” printers, bookbinders, publishers, booksellers and distributors) amounted in 1901 to 24,139. The first sugar refinery was erected in 1765 at Greenock, which, despite periodical vicissitudes, has remained the principal seat of the industry, which is also carried on at Leith, Glasgow and Dundee. The making of preserves and confectionery flourishes in Dundee, Aberdeen, Paisley and Edinburgh. Kirkcaldy is the seat of the oil floor-cloth and linoleum industries, the latter introduced in 1877. The headquarters of the chemicals manufacture are situated in Glasgow and the vicinity, while explosives are chiefly manufactured at Stevenston and elsewhere in Ayrshire, and at certain places on the Argyll coast. Among occupations providing employment for large numbers were trades in connexion with building and works of construction (136,639 persons in 1901), and furniture and timber (39,000), while the conveyance of passengers, parcels and messages employed 163,102 (railway, 43,037; roads, 53,813; sea, rivers and canals, 20,451; docks, harbours and lighthouses, 10,659; and storage, porterage and messages, 35,142).

Commerce and Shipping.—That Scotland had a considerable trade with foreign countries at a very early period may be inferred from the importation of rich dresses by Malcolm III. (d. 1093), and the enjoyment of Oriental luxuries by Alexander I. (d. 1124). His successor, David I., receives the special praise of Fordun for enriching “the ports of his kingdom with foreign merchandise.” In the 13th century the Scots had acquired a considerable celebrity in shipbuilding; and a powerful French baron had a ship specially built at Inverness in 1249 to convey him and his vassals to the Holy Land. The principal shipowners at this period were the clergy, who embarked the wealth of their religious houses in commercial enterprises. Definite statements

regarding the number and tonnage of shipping are, however, lacking till the 18th century. From two reports printed by the Scottish Burgh Record Society in 1881, it appears that the number of vessels belonging to the principal ports—Leith, Dundee, Glasgow, Kirkcaldy and Montrose—in 1656 was 58, the tonnage being 3140, and that by 1692 they had increased to 97 of 5905 tons. These figures only represent a portion of the total shipping of the kingdom. At the time of the Union in 1707 the number of vessels was 215 of 14,485 tons.