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 upwards about an axis passing through their sternal and vertebral extremities, it is evident that the lateral diameter of the thorax must be increased. (c) When the muscular portion of the diaphragm contracts, the curves of its dome-like shape are straightened, the whole diaphragm comes to look more conical on section, and the apposition of its lateral parts to the inner surface of the

From Hermann's Handbuch. . 9.—Showing Slope of Ribs.

thorax is destroyed; the two apposed surfaces are drawn apart much as the leaves of a book might be, and a space is formed between them, into which some portion of the lung slips. (d) When the diaphragm descends it draws with it the whole contents of the thorax; inasmuch as the contents as a whole are conical in shape with the apex upward and are fitted into the conical space of the thoracic cavity, it is clear that the descent of the contents will tend to create a space between them and the thoracic walls; for each stratum of lung, &c., which is adapted to fit a certain level of thorax, will thereby be brought into a lower and (as the thorax is conical) a more spacious level. Hence the descent of the diaphragm causes a much greater enlargement of the thorax than is measured by the mere elongation of the vertical diameter. In this manner the thorax is distended and air is drawn into the lungs. The contraction of the thorax in expiration is brought about by the return of the ribs and diaphragm to their original position of rest.

How the Inspiratory Movements are Produced.—The Rib Movements.—These are caused by the contraction of muscles which are fixed either to the central axis of the body (including under that term the head and vertebral column) or to some point rendered sufficiently stable for the purpose by the action of other adjuvant muscles. Thus the M. levatores costarum arise from the transverse processes of the 7th cervical and eleven upper dorsal vertebrae, and are attached to the ribs below in series; the M. scaleni spring from the cervical vertebrae, and are attached to the anterior parts of the first and second ribs; the M. sternocleido-mastoidei arise from the side and back of the skull, and are inserted into the upper part of the sternum and the clavicle; the M. pectoral is minor arises from the coracoid process of the scapula, and is inserted into the anterior ends of some of the ribs; the M. serratus posticus superior arises from certain of the cervical and dorsal vertebrae, and is inserted into the posterior part of certain of the ribs; the M. cervical is ascend ens (part of the M. erector spinae) arises from certain of the cervical vertebrae, and is inserted into the posterior part of certain ribs. The M. serratus magnus and the M. pectoral is major, which are affixed on the one hand to the upper arm and to the scapula respectively, and on the other to the ribs and to the sternum respectively, may in certain elevated positions of the arm and shoulder act as inspiratory muscles. When all these muscles contract, the ribs are raised in the twofold way already described, some pulling up the anterior ends of the ribs, and others causing the arched ribs to rotate about an axis passing through their vertebral and sternal joints. In addition to the muscles just enumerated, the M. inter cost ales externi are undoubtedly inspiratory muscles. Every external intercostal muscular fibre between a pair of ribs must, when it contracts, of necessity raise bath ribs, as is clearly shown by the accompanying diagram (fig. ro). Here a'b' must be shorter than ab, for if angle BAa=x, then ab2=AB2+ (Bb-Aa)2+2AB(Bb-Aa)cos x; hence ab will be larger the smaller the angle x, for the cosine increases as the angle diminishes. an

By a similar geometrical treatment of the question it may be shown that the internal intercostal muscles when they contract must of necessity depress both the ribs to which they are attached. If the angle BAc' =x(fig, 11), then c'd'2=AB2-|- (Ac' -Bd')2-2AB(Ac'-Bd') cos x; hence c'd' will be larger the larger the angle x. . The case, however, is not so clear with reference to the anterior portions of the internal intercostals which lie between the cartilages; for it is evident that these fibres have the same direction with regard to the sternum as an axis as the external intercostals have with regard to the vertebral column as an axis; that is to say, the geometrical diagram in fig. ro applies to the inter-cartilaginous internal intercostals as perfectly as it does to the inter-osseous parts of the external intercostals, the inference being that the inter-cartilaginous internal intercostals tend to elevate the pair of ribs between which they stretch. The geometrical argument is, however, overborne by physiological experiment: Martin and Hartwell have observed in the dog and the cat that the internal intercostals throughout their whole extent contract (not synchronously) but alternately with the diaphragm; hence we must conclude that their function throughout is not inspiratory like that of the diaphragm, but expi-ratory.

The Movements of the Diaphragm.—The muscular fibres of the diaphragm are arranged in a radial manner, or, more strictly speaking, in a manner like the lines of longitude on a terrestrial globe. The central tendon of the diaphragm corresponds to the pole of such a globe. The contraction of the fibres is expendcd on straightening the longitudinal curves rather than on pulling down the central tendon to a lower level; in fact, the central tendon moves very little in ordinary respiration. H ow the Expiratory Movements are Produced.-The action of inspiration disturbs many organs from the position of rest into which gravity and their own physical properties have thrown them. The ribs and sternum are raised from the position of lowest level; the elastic costal cartilages are twisted; the elastic lungs are put upon the stretch; the abdominal organs, themselves elastic, are compressed and thrust against the elastic walls of the belly, causing these to bulge outwards. In short the very act of inspiration stores up, as it were, in sundry ways the forces which make for expiration. As soon as the inspiratory muscles cease to act these forces come into play, and the position of rest or equilibrium is regained. It is very doubtful whether any special expiratory muscles are called into action during ordinary respiration. The internal intercostals may in man be exercised in ordinary expiration (although they are certainly not so exercised in the dog and the cat); but in laboured expiration many muscles assist in the expulsive effort. The muscles forming the belly-walls contract and force the abdominal contents against the relaxed diaphragm in such a manner as to drive it farther and farther into the thorax. At the same time by their attachment to the lower edge of the