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Rh Plautus was under some obligation to the Sicilian representatives of the old Dorian comedy; cf. Varro's statement (in Priscian ix. 32), deinde ad Siculos se applicavit. It is possible that Plautus may have been working on the lines of the old comedy in the tell-tale names which he is so fond of inventing for his characters, such as Polymachaeroplagides (Pseud. 988), Pyrgopolinices (Mil. 56), Thensaurochrysonicochrysides (Capt. 285) —names which stand in remarkable contrast to the more commonplace Greek names employed by Terence.

In the middle ages Plautus was little regarded, and twelve of his plays (Bacchides–Truculentus) disappeared from view until they were discovered (in the MS. called D) by Nicholas of Treves in the year 1429. Apparently some early archetype had been divided into two volumes, of which only the first (containing eight plays, Amphitruo–Epidicus) had escaped oblivion or destruction. After the revival of learning Plautus was reinstated, and took rank as one of the great dramatists of antiquity; cf. Shakespeare, Hamlet, 1. ii. 420, where Polonius says, “The best actors in the world ... Seneca cannot be too heavy nor Plautus too light.”

.—The chief MSS. of Plautus belong to two families, which are proved by the errors which they have in common to be descended from a single source (Sicker, “ovae quaestiones plautinae”, in Philologus suppl. xi. 2; 1908): (i.) that represented by the– fragmentary palimpsest of the Ambrosian Library at Milan (A, 4th century A.D.), discovered in 1815 by Cardinal Mai and now accessible in the Aporaph of Studemun, edited by Seylfert (1889); (ii.) that represented by the Palatine MSS. (P, 10th–12th century), viz B, now in the Vatican, containing all the twenty plays preceded by the surious Querolus; C, now at Heidelberg, containing the last twelve plays, i.e. Bacchuies-Truculentus; D, now in the Vatican, containing the Amphitruo, Asinaria, Aulularia half of the Captivi and the last twelve plays: to the same family belong the following less important MSS.: E (at Milan), V (at Leiden), J (in the British Museum), O (in the Vatican).

.—The editio princeps, based mainly on a transcript of D, was printed at Venice, 1472: the first scientific text, based on B, C and D, was that of Camerarius, completed 1552, in whose steps followed Lambinus (with a commentary which is still useful), 1576; Taubmann, 1605-1621; Pareus (a meritorious edition), 1619 and 1623; Guyet, edited by Marolles, 1658; Gronovius (the “Vulgate”), 1664-1684; then, after the lapse of more than a century, came the editions of Bothe, 1809-1811- Naudet, 1830; and Weise, 1837-1848. A new era began with the great critical edition of certain plays by Ritschl, 1848-1854, in which a collation of A was used, a revised and completed form of this work was commenced by Ritschl himself and continued by his disciples Goetz, Loewe and Schoell, 1871-1894: and of this an entirely rewritten editio minor by Goetz and Schoell appeared in 1893-1896 (continued by a 2nd ed. of Fasciculus ii. in 1904), which is still the most useful of modern editions for a critical study of the text, exhibiting, as it does, the MS. tradition with only such emendations as are securely established by the results of modern investigation. The other modern editions of the text are those of Fleckeisen (containing ten plays, excellent for his time), 1859; Ussing (with a commentary), 1875-1887, 2nd ed. of vol. iii. 1888; Leo (a very important work), 1895-1896; Lindsay, 1904-1905. Among modern editions of separate plays with commentaries the following are probably the most useful: Amphitruo by Palmer, 1890, and Havet, 1895; Asinaria by Gray, 1894; Aulularia by Wagner, 1866 and 1876; Captivi by Brix, 6th ed., revised by Niemeyer, 1910; an English edition of this work by Sonnenschein (with introduction on prosody), 1880; same play by Lindsay (with metrical introduction), 1900; Eptdicus by Gray, 1893; Menaechmi by Brix, 4th ed., revised by Niemeyer, 1891; Miles glorious by Lorenz, 2nd ed., 1886; by Brix, 3rd ed., revised by Niemeyer, 1901; by Tyrrell, 3rd ed., 1894; Mostellaria by Lorenz, 2nd ed., 1883; by Sonnenschein, 2nd ed., 1907; Pseudolus by Lorenz, 1876; Rudens by Sonnenschein, 1891, editio minor (with a metrical appendix), 1901; Trinummus (with a metrical introduction) by Brix, 5th ed., revised by Niemeyer, 1907; by Gray, 1897; Truculentus by Spengel and Studemund, 1898.

.—Good characterizations of Plautus, from the literary point of view, are given by Sellar in his Roman Poets of the Republic, and Wight Duff, in his Literary History of Rome (1909). A summary of recent critical works bearing on the text and interpretation is given by Seyffert in his admirable reports (in Bursian's Jahresrachte uber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft), 1883-1885, 1886-1889, 1890-1894, continued by Lindsay, 1895-1906. Important contributions to textual criticism are contained in Ritschl Parerga (1845), Neue plauttnische Excurse (1869), and his collected Opuscula philologtca; Studemund, Studia in priscos scriplofes latinos (vo. i. 1873, vol. ii. 1891); Langen, Beirrage (1877) and Plautinische Studien (1886); Leo, Plautinische Forschungen (1895); Lindsay, Codex Turnebt (1898). Bentley's Plautine Emendatzons were published by Sonnenschein partly in his edition

of the Captivi (1880), partly in the Anecdota oxoniensia series (1883).

.—The most important treatises (apart from those mentioned under “Editions”) are Muller, Plautinische Prosodze (1869); Spengel, Reformvorschlage zur Metrik der lyrischen Versarten (1882), Klotz, Grundzuge altromtscher Metrik (1890), Skutsch, Farschungen zur lateinischen Grammattk und Metrik (1892), Iambenkurzung und Synizese (Satura Viadrina) (1896), continued by the author in a work called Pépas (1903); Leo, Die plautinischen Cantua und die hellenistische Lyrik (1897); Maurenbrecher, Hiatus und Verschleifung im alten Latein (1899); Ahlberg, De proceleusmaticis (1900), De correptione iambica plautina (1901); Jacobsohn, Quaestiones plautinae (1904); Radfo, on the “Recession of the Latin Accent” (in Amer. Journ. Phil., 1904), “Studies in Latin Accent and Metric” (in Trans. Amer. Phil. Assoc., 1904), “Plautine synthezesis” (ibid., 1905, continued in Amer. Journ. Phil., 1906), (a work on cognate subjects is promised by Exon); Sudhaus, Der Aufbau der plautinischen Canttca (1909).

.—The most recent works bearing on Old Latin syntax, are Sjogren, Zum Gebrauch des Futurums im Altlateinischen (1906); Lindsay, Syntax of Plautus (1907); Sonnenschein, The Unity of the Latin Subjunctve (1910). A work by H. Thomas, entitled A catalogue raisonné of the Subjunctve in Plautus, in support of the theory of the unity of origin of the Latin Subjunctive, is announced as in preparation.

.—The only completed lexicon (alpart from the Indices of Naudet, 1832, and Weise, 1838) is that of Pareus (2nd ed., 1634). New lexica have been begun by Waltzing (1900; apparently not to be continued) and Lodge (1901; in progress). The latter work, when completed, will be indispensable.

.—A comprehensive view of the influence of Plautus on modern literature's is given by Reinhardstoettner, Spatere Bearbeitungen plautinischer Lustspiele (1886). Many adaptations for the Italian stage were produced between the years 1486 and 1550, the earliest (the Menaechmi) under the direction of Ercole I., duke of Ferrara. From Italy the practice spread to France, Spain, England and other countries.

Of English plays, the interlude called Jack Juggler (between 1547 and 1553) was based on the Amphitruo, and the lost play called the Historie of Error (acted in 1577) was probably based on the Menae-chmi; Nicholas Udall's Ralph Royster Doyster, the first English comedy (acted before 1551, first printed 1566), is founded on the Miles glorious; Shakespeare's Comedy of Errors (about 1591) is an adaptation of the Menaechmi; and his Falstaff may be regarded as an idealized reproduction or development of the braggart soldier of Plautus and Terence—a type of character which reappears in other forms not only in English literature (eg. in Shakespeare's Parolles and Ben Johnson's Captain Bobadil) but also in most of the literature's of modern Europe. Shakespeare's Taming of the Shrew has been influenced in several respects (including the names Tranio and Grumio) by the Mostellarta. Ben Jonson produced a skilful amalgamation of the Aulularta and the Captivi in his early play The Case is Altered (written before 1599). Thomas Heywood adapted the Amghttruo in his Silver Age (1613), the Rudens in his Captives (license 1624), and the Mostellaria in his English Traveller (1633). Dryden's Amphitryon or the two Sosias (1690) is based partly on the Amphitruo, partly on Molière's adaptation thereof; Fielding's Miser (acted 1732) on Molière's L'Avare rather than on the Aulularia, and his Intriguing Chambermaid (acted 1733) on Regnard's Le Retour imprévu rather than on the Mostellaria. There was no English translation, strictly so called, of any play of Plautus in the 16th or 17th century, except that of the Menaechmi by W. W. (probably William Warner), first printed in 1595, which Shakespeare may possibly have used (in MS.) for his Comedy of Errors. A translation of the whole of Plautus in “familiar blank verse” by Bonnell Thornton and others appeared in 1767 (2nd ed., 1769-l774). Five plays have been translated in the metres of the original by Sugden (1893).

 PLAY, a word of which the primary meaning is that of free or active movement or exercise. The O. Eng. plegan or plegian, from which comes the substantive plega, play, is apparently cognate with Ger. pflegen, to take care or charge of, and Pflege, care, and the connexion in sense is to be found in the primary meaning, that of exercise or active movement. In its primary meaning “play” is used of the rapid changing movement of light and colour, and also figuratively of thought or fancy, and specifically of the free movement of parts of a mechanism on each other, of a joint or limb, &c. To play a musical instrument is to move the fingers upon it, and until the 18th century the verb was intransitive, and “ on ” or “ upon ” was always used with the name of the instrument. The very general use of the word for sport, game or amusement, is an early and easy development from the meaning of active movement or exercise as a recreation after work; that of a dramatic performance (see ) is very early; the New English Dictionary quotes from King Alfred's Orosius (c. 893). 