Page:EB1911 - Volume 21.djvu/781

Rh This peculiar relationship suggests at once a symbiosis, the Fungus gaining its nutriment mainly or entirely from the green plant, while the latter in some way or other is able to utilize the free nitrogen of the air. The exact way in which the utilization or fixation of the nitrogen is effected remains undecided. Two views are still receiving certain support, though the second of them appears the more probable. These are: (1) That the green plant is so stimulated by the symbiotic association which leads to the hypertrophy, that it is able to fix the nitrogen or cause it to enter into combination. (2) That the fixation of the gas is carried out by the fungal organism either in the soil or in the plant, and the nitrogenous substance so produced is absorbed by the organism, which is in turn consumed by the green plant. Certain evidence which supports this view will be referred to later.

Whichever opinion is held on this point, there seems no room for doubt that the fixation of the nitrogen is concerned only with the root, and that the green leaves take no part in it. The nodules, in particular, appear to play the important part in the process. Marshall Ward has directed attention to several points of their structure which bear out this view. They are supplied with a regular system of conducting vascular bundles communicating with those of the roots. Their cells during the period of incubation of the symbiotic organism are abundantly supplied with starch. The cells in which the fungoid organism is vigorously flourishing are exceedingly active, showing large size, brilliant nuclei, protoplasm and vacuole, all of which give signs of intense metabolic activity. The sap in these active tissues is alkaline, which has been interpreted as being in accordance with Lœw's suggestion that the living protoplasm in presence of an alkali and free nitrogen can build up ammonium nitrate, or some similar body. It is, however, at present entirely unknown what substances are formed at the expense of the atmospheric nitrogen.

The idea that the atmospheric nitrogen is gradually being made use of by plants, although it is clearly not easily or commonly utilized, has been growing steadily. Besides the phenomena of the symbiosis just discussed, certain experiments tend to show that we have a constant fixation of this gas in the soil by various Bacteria. Researches which have been carried out since 1885 by Berthelot, Andrée, Laurent and Schlœsing, and more recently by Kossowitsch, seem to establish the fact, though the details of the process remain undiscovered. Berthelot imputes it to the action of several species of soil Bacteria and Fungi, including the Bacterium of the Leguminosae, when the latter is cultivated free from its ordinary host. Laurent and Schlœsing affirm that the free nitrogen of the air can be fixed by a number of humble green plants, principally lowly green Algae. They must be exposed freely to light and air during the process, or they fail to effect it. Frank has stated that Penicillium cladiosporioides can flourish in a medium to which no nitrogen but that of the atmosphere has access. Kossowitsch claims to have proved that fixation of nitrogen takes place under the influence of a symbiosis of certain Algae and soil Bacteria, the process being much facilitated by the presence of sugar. The Algae include Nostoc, Cystococcus, Cylindrospermum and a few other forms. In the symbiosis the Algae are supplied with nitrogen by the bacteria, and in turn they construct carbohydrate material, art of which goes to the microbes. This is supported by the fact that if the mixed culture is placed in the light there is a greater fixation than when it is left in darkness. If there is a plentiful supply of carbon dioxide, more nitrogen is fixed.

Nitrification and Denitrification in the Soil.—Another aspect of the nitrogen question has been the subject of much investigation and controversy since 1877. The round of changes which nitrogenous organic matter undergoes in the soil, and how it is ultimately made use of again by plants, presents some curious features. We have seen that when nitrogenous matter is present in the condition of humus, some plants can absorb it by their roots or by the aid of mycorhizas. But the changes in it in the usual course of nature are much more profound than these. It becomes in the soil the prey of various microbes. Ammonia appears immediately as a product of the disruption of the nitrogen-containing organic molecule. Later, oxidation processes take place, and the ammonia gives rise to nitrates which are absorbed by plants. These two processes go on successively rather than simultaneously, so that it is only towards the end of the decomposition of the organic matter that nitrification of the ammonia which is formed is set up. In this process of nitrification we can distinguish two phases, first the formation of nitrites, and secondly their oxidation to nitrates. The researches of Warington in England and Winogradsky on the Continent have satisfactorily shown that two distinct organisms are concerned in it, and that probably more than one species of each exists. One of them comprising the genera Nitrosomonas and Nitrosococcus, has the power of oxidizing salts of ammonium to the condition of compounds of nitrous acid. When in a pure culture this stage has been reached no further oxidation takes place. The oxidation of the nitrites into nitrates is effected by another organism, much smaller than the first. The name Nitrobacter has been given to this genus, most of our knowledge of which is due to the researches of Winogradsky.

The two kinds of organism are usually both present in the same soil, those of the second type immediately oxidizing the nitrites which those of the first form from ammonium salts. The Nitrobacter forms not only cannot oxidize the latter bodies, but they are very injuriously affected by the presence of free ammonia. When cultivated upon a suitable nutritive material in the laboratory, the organism was killed by the presence of .015% of this gas, and seriously inconvenienced by one-third as much. Except in this respect, however, the two classes show great similarity. A very interesting peculiarity attaching to them is their distaste for organic nutriment. They can be cultivated most readily on masses of gelatinous silica impregnated with the appropriate compounds of nitrogen, and their growth takes place most copiously in the absence of light. They need a little carbonate in the nutrient material, and the source of the carbon which is found in the increased bulk of the plant is partly that and partly the carbon dioxide of the air.

We have in these plants a power which appears special to them, in the possession of some mechanism for the construction of organic substance which differs essentially from the chlorophyll apparatus of green plants, and yet brings about substantially similar results. The steps by which this carbon dioxide is built up into a compound capable of being assimilated by the protoplasm of the cells are not known. The energy for the purpose appears to be supplied by the oxidation of the molecules containing nitrogen, so that it is dependent upon such oxidation taking place. Winogradsky has investigated this point with great care, and he has come to the conclusion that about 35 milligrammes of nitrogen are oxidized for each milligramme of carbon absorbed and fixed.

Deposition and Digestion of Reserve Materials in Plants and Animals.—As we have seen, the tendency of recent research is to prove the identity of the mode of nutrition of vegetable and animal organisms. The material on which they feed is of the same description and its treatment in the body is precisely similar. In both groups we find the presence of nutritive material in two forms, one specially fitted for transport, the other for storage. We have seen that in the plant the processes of construction go on in the seats of manufacture faster than those of consumption. We have the surplus sugar, for instance, deposited as starch in the chloroplasts themselves. The manufacture goes on very actively so long as light shines upon the leaves, and we find towards night a very great surplus stored in the cells. This excess of manufacture is one of the features of plant life, and is exhibited, though in various degrees, by all green plants. The accumulated material is made to minister to the need of the plant in various ways; it may be by increasing the bulk of the plant, as by the formation of the wood of the trunk, branches and roots; or it may be by laying up a store of nutritive materials for purposes of propagation, as in tubers, corms, seeds, &c. In any case the surplus is continuously being removed from the seats of its construction and deposited for longer or shorter periods in other parts of the structure, usually near the regions at which its ultimate consumption will take place. We have the deposition of starch, aleurone grains, amorphous proteids, fats, &c., in the neighbourhood of growing points, cambium rings and phellogens; also the more prolonged storage in tubers, seeds and other reproductive bodies. Turning to the animal, we meet with similar provisions in the storage of glycogen in the liver and other parts, of fat in various internal regions, and so on. In both we find the reserve of food, so far as it is in excess of immediate need, existing in two conditions, the one suitable for transport, the other for storage, and we see continually the transformation of the one into the other. The formation of the storage form at the expense of the travelling stream is due to the activity of some protoplasmic structure—it may be a plastid or the general protoplasm of the cell—and is a process of secretion. The converse process is one of a true digestion, which deserves the name no less because it is intracellular. We find processes of digestion strictly comparable to those of the alimentary canal of an animal in the case of the insectivorous Nepenthes, Drosera and other similar plants, and in the saprophytic Fungi. Those which now concern us recall the utilization of the glycogen of the liver, the stored fats and proteids of other parts of the animal body being like them intracellular.

Enzymes.—The agents which effect the digestive changes in plants have been studied with much care. They have been found to be mainly enzymes, which are in many cases identical with those of animal origin. A vast number of them have been discovered and investigated, and the majority call for a brief notice. Their number, indeed, renders it necessary to classify them, and rather to look at groups of them than to examine them one by one. They are usually classified according to the materials on which they work, and we may here notice es especially four principal groups, the members of which take part in the digestion of reserve materials as well as in the processes of external digestion. These decompose respectively carbohydrates, glucosides, proteids and fats or oils. The action of the enzyme in nearly every case is one of hydration, the body acted on being made to take up water and to undergo a subsequent decomposition.

Among those which act on carbohydrates the most important are: the two varieties of diastase, which convert starch into maltose or malt sugar; inulase, which forms fructose from inulin; invertase, which converts cane sugar into glucose (grape sugar) and fructose; glucase or maltase, which produces grape sugar from maltose; and cytase, which hydrolyses cellulose. Another enzyme which does