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Rh of the good things, but they were bitterly disappointed, as Pius did not prove himself the liberal and undiscriminating patron they hoped. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 had made a deep impression upon Pius, and he never ceased to preach the crusade against the Turk. In September 1459 he opened a congress at Mantua for the purpose of considering what could be done in this direction. His proposals for the raising of troops and money met with general opposition. The French were angry because Pius had crowned the Spanish claimant, Ferdinand, king of Naples, and thus disposed of the pretensions of René of Anjou. The Germans also objected to Pius's plans, but finally agreed to furnish some troops and money, promises which they did not carry out. Pius felt how much the position of the papacy had fallen in importance since the days of Urban and Innocent III., and, believing that the change was due to the general councils which had asserted power over the popes, he changed his position, which before his election to the papal throne had been that of a warm advocate of the conciliar claims, and issued (Jan. 1460) the bull Execrabilis et in pristinis temporibus inauditus, in which he condemned as heretical the doctrine that the councils were superior to the popes, and proclaimed the anathema against any one who should dare to appeal to one. He issued another bull at the same time, promising forgiveness of sins to those who would take part in the crusade, and then dissolved the congress.

While Pius was at Mantua war broke out between the French and Spanish in southern Italy, and a rising of the barons devastated the Campagna. Hurrying back to Rome Pius succeeded in quelling the disorders, and sent his nephew Antonio Todeschini to the aid of Ferdinand, who made him duke of Amalfi find gave him his natural daughter Maria in marriage. This measure still further alienated the pope from the French, with whom he was at that time negotiating for the abrogation of the Pragmatic Sanction. When Louis XI. came to the throne (Nov. 1461), he sent to Pius saying that he had abolished the Pragmatic Sanction, hoping in return to get the kingdom of Naples for his countryman René of Anjou. When Pius refused to do anything to the prejudice of Ferdinand, Louis changed his attitude, and allowed the protests of the university of Paris and the parlements to persuade him to restore the ancient liberties of the Gallican Church. At the same time a serious quarrel with the Germans prevented anything being done towards a crusade. George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, was plotting to depose the emperor Frederick III., who was supported by Pius. Diether, archbishop of Mainz, took the side of Podiebrad, and replied to Pius's measures by appealing to a general council. He was declared deposed by the pope, but kept his seat, and in 1464 compelled the pope to recognize him again. The quarrel with Podiebrad, who was accused of supporting the Utraquist heresy, continued with increasing bitterness, but without any decisive result, until the death of Pius. In the meantime the pope did what he could to further the cause of the crusade. The discovery of alum mines at Tolf a gave him an unexpected pecuniary resource, and to stimulate the zeal of Christendom, Pius took the cross on the 18th of June 1464. He set out for Venice, where he intended to sail for the East, but he was attacked with a fever, and on the 14th of August 1464 he died.

Pius II was a voluminous author. Besides poems, a novel and a play, he wrote a number of orations, which were considered models of eloquence in their day. His most valuable work, however, is his Commentaries, a history of his own life and times, told in an interesting and rational manner. He is very frank about himself, and most of the adverse judgments which have been pronounced on his character have been based on his own confessions. He was an opportunist, sailing along with any favourable breeze, and not quite enough in earnest about anything to pursue the same tack steadily for long. We must give him the credit, however, of advocating a statesman-like policy in the interests of the whole of Europe in trying to get the powers to unite against the Turks, who threatened to overwhelm them all.

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopädie (1904), vol. xv., where a full bibliography will be found; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy during the Reformation, vol. ii. (London, 1882); L. Pastor, History of the Popes from the close of the Middle Ages (Eng. trans., 1896, vol. ii.); Voigt, Pius II. (1856–1863). The Commentaries of Pius were published in 1584, under the name of Gobelinus Persona. His other works are found in Aeneae Silvii opera omnia (Basel, 1551). See also W. Boulting, Aeneas Silvius (1909).

(Francesco Nanni-Todeschini-Piccolomini), pope from the 22nd of September to the 18th of October 1503, was born at Siena on the 9th of May 1439. After studying law at Perugia, he was made archbishop of Siena and cardinal-deacon of St Eustachio, when only twenty-two years of age, by his uncle Pius II., who permitted him to assume the name and arms of the Piccolomini. He was employed by subsequent popes in several important legations, as by Paul II. at the diet of Regensburg, and by Sixtus IV. to secure the restoration of ecclesiastical authority in Umbria. He bravely opposed the policy of Alexander VI., and was elected pope, amid the disturbances consequent upon the death of the latter, through the interested influence of Cardinal delia Rovere, afterwards Julius II., and was crowned on the 8th of October 1503. He permitted Cesare Borgia to return to Rome, but promptly took in hand the reform of the curia. Pius was a man of blameless life, and would doubtless have accomplished much had he lived. His successor was Julius II.

See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. vi., trans. by F. I. Antrobus (London, 1898); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. v. (London, 1901); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. viii., trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900–1902); Piccolomini, "Il Pontificato di Pio III.," in ''Archivio stor. ital.'', vol.,v. (Firenze, 1903).

(Giovanni Angelo Medici, or "Medighino"), pope from 1559 to 1565, was born at Milan on the 31st of March 1499, of an obscure family, not related to the Medici of Florence (a claim to such relationship was advanced after Giovanni Angelo had attained to prominence). The fortune of the family was established by an elder brother, Gian Giacomo, who fought his way to the marquisate of Marignano and distinguished himself in the service of the emperor. Giovanni Angelo studied in Bologna and Pavia, and for some time followed the law. Entering the service of the Church, he found favour with Paul III., who entrusted him with the governorship of several important towns, and in 1549 made him a cardinal. Julius III. sent him upon missions to Germany and Hungary. With Paul IV. he was out of favour, because not in sympathy with his policy, and accordingly retired to Milan. In the protracted and momentous conclave that followed the death of Paul the election of Pius (Dec. 25, 1559) was due to a compromise between the Spanish and French factions.

In temperament and habit Pius was the antithesis of his predecessor: affable, vivacious, convivial. He was, moreover, astute, diplomatic and experienced in affairs. He allowed the reform movement free course, but tried to repair certain injustices of Paul IV. (for example, releasing and reinstating Morone, who had been imprisoned on a charge of heresy), and mitigated some of his extreme decrees. But to the nephews of Paul he showed no mercy: they were charged with various crimes, condemned, upon testimony of suspicious validity, and executed on the 5th of March 1561. The Colonnesi, who had been active in the prosecution, recovered Paliano. But under Pius V. judgment was reversed, the memory of the Caraffa rehabilitated, and restitution made to the family. Pius IV. himself was not guiltless of nepotism; but the bestowment of the cardinalate and the archbishopric of Milan upon his nephew, the pure and upright Carlo Borromeo, redounded to the honour of his pontificate and the welfare of the church.

With England lost to the papacy, Germany overwhelmingly Protestant, and France on the verge of civil war, Pius realized how fatuous was the anti-Spanish policy of his predecessor. He therefore recognized Ferdinand as emperor, and conciliated Philip II. with extensive ecclesiastical privileges. But subsequently, antagonized by Philip's arrogance, he inclined towards France, and gave troops and money for the war against the Huguenots.