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 Fathers, 1905, pp. 53 seq., 71 seq., 94 seq., with R. J. Knowling’s Testimony of St Paul to Christ, pp. 111 seq. and Gregory’s Canon and Text of N. T., 1907, pp. 205–206).

.—The ablest among recent editions of the Greek text are those of R. A. Lipsius (Hand-Commentar zum N. T., 2nd ed., 1892), E. Haupt (in Meyer’s Kommentar, 1902) and H. A. A. Kennedy (Expositor’s Greek Testament, 1903), to which may be added the older commentaries of C. J. Ellicott (5th ed., 1888), J. B. Lightfoot (6th ed., 1891) and A. Klöpper (1893), which in some respects are not yet superseded. Other modern editions by M. R. Vincent (Internat. Crit. Commentary, 1897), H. C. G. Moule (Cambridge Greek Testament, 1897) and J. M. S. Baljon (1904) are worthy of notice, as well as the Roman Catholic commentaries by P. Beelen (Louvain, 1852) and A. Bisping (1866). The earlier work on the epistle is adequately summarized by B. Weiss in his Der Philipperbrief ausgelegt u. die Geschichte seiner Auslegung kritisch dargestellt (1859). There are brief popular commentaries in German by A. Neander (En. trans., 1851, Edinburgh), K. Braune (in Lange’s Bibel-Werk, 2nd ed., 1875), Von Soden (1890), K. J. Müller (1899) and W. Lueken (in Die Schriften des N. T., 1906); in English by C. J. Vaughan, M. F. Sadler (1889), J. Agar Beet, G. C. Martin (Century Bible) and Principal Drummond (Internat. Handbooks to N. T., 1899). In addition to the literature cited in the course of this article, consult the general studies by M. Hasselmann (Analyse pragmatique de l'épître aux Phil., 1862); A. Sabatier (Encycl. des sciences relig. x. 569–573); J. Gibb (Hastings’s Dict. Bible, iii. 840–844); Sir W. M. Ramsay (St Paul the Traveller, ch. x., xv. § 4) and R. R. Smith (The Epistle of St. Paul’s First Trial, Cambridge, 1899); besides the older essays of Rettig (Quaestiones philippienses, Giessen, 1831) and C. Müller (Comment. de locis quibusdam epistolae ad Phil., 1844). The case against the Pauline authorship was stated most fully by F. C. Baur (Paulus, Eng. trans, ii. 45 seq. and in Theol. Jahrb., 1849, pp. 501 seq., 1852, p. 133 seq); E. Hinsch (Zeitschrift für wiss. Theol., 1873, p. 59 seq.); S. Hoekstra (Theol. Tijdschrift, 1875, pp. 416 seq); J. P. Straatman (De Gemeente te Rome, 1878, pp. 201 seq.); C. Holsten (Jahrb. für protest. Theologie, 1875, pp. 425 seq. 1876, pp. 58 seq., 282 seq.); and Van Manen (Handeleiding voor de oudchrist. Letterkunde, 1900, pp. 49–51, 82–84; also in Ency. Bib., 3703–3713). The most thorough replies have been those of Lünemann (Pauli ad Philipp. epistola contra Baurium defensa, 1847); Ernesti (Studien und Kritiken, 1848, p. 858–924, 1851, pp. 591–632); B. Brückner (Epistola ad Phil. Paulo auctori vindicata contra Baurium, 1848); A. Resch (De l'Authent. de l'épître aux Ph., 1850); Grimm (Zeitschrift für wiss. Theologie, 1873, pp. 33 seq.); Hilgenfeld (ibid., 1884, pp. 498 seq.); C. Weizsäcker (Apostolic Age, i. 218 seq., 279 seq., ii. 131) and Clemen (Paulus, i. 130–138). The religious ideas of the epistle are best stated in English by Principal Rainy (Philippians, Expositor’s Bible) and H. C. G. Moule (Philippian Studies, 1897). Of the numberless monographs on ii. 6 seq., the most full is Tholuck’s Disputatio christologica de loco ''Pauli, Phil. ii. 6–9; and discussions of special excellence may be found in A. B Bruce, The Humiliation of Christ (3rd ed., 1889, pp. 15 seq., 357 seq.); Weiffenbach’s Zur Auslegung d. Stelle Phil.'' ''ii. 5–11 (Karlsruhe, 1884); and E. H. Gifford, The Incarnation'' (reprinted from the Expositor, 1896).

 PHILIPPICS, in classical literature, a series of orations delivered by Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon. The name was applied to the speeches of Cicero against Mark Antony, and “Philippic” has passed into general use in the sense of an impassioned invective or declamation.

 PHILIPPICUS, East Roman emperor, 711–713, was the son of the patrician Nicephorus, and became distinguished as a soldier under Justinian II. His proper name, which indicates his Armenian origin, was Bardanes. Relying on the support of the Monothelite party, he made some pretensions to the throne on the outbreak of the first great rebellion against Justinian; these led to his relegation to Cephalonia by Tiberius Absimarus, and subsequently to his banishment, by order of Justinian, to Cherson. Here Bardanes, taking the name of Philippicus, successfully incited the inhabitants to revolt, and on the assassination of Justinian he at once assumed the purple. Among his first acts were the deposition of Cyrus, the orthodox patriarch of Constantinople, in favour of John, a member of his own sect, and the summoning of a conciliabulum of Eastern bishops, which abolished the canons of the sixth general council. Meanwhile Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians, plundered up to the walls of Constantinople, and shortly afterwards the Saracens made similar inroads from the Asiatic side. The reign of Philippicus was brought to a close through a conspiracy headed by two of his generals, who caused him to be blinded.

See Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, London, 1896), v. 183–184.

 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, or, an archipelago belonging to the United States of America, situated about 500 m. off the S.E. coast of Asia between 4° 40′ and 21° 10′ N. and between 116° 40′ and 126° 34′ E. It is bounded W. and N. by the China Sea, E. by the Pacific Ocean, and S. by the Celebes Sea and the coastal waters of Borneo. Of the large islands, Luzon (40,969 sq. m.) is the most northerly, and Mindanao (36,292 sq. m.), the most southerly. Between Luzon and Mindanao are Samar (5031 sq. m.), Negros (4881 sq. m.), Panay (4611 sq. m.), Mindoro (3851 sq. m.), Leyte (2722 sq. m.), Cebú (1762 sq m.), Bohol (1441 sq. m.) and Masbate (1236 sq. m.). Farther west and separated from the southern portion of this chain is the long narrow island of Palawan or Paragua (4027 sq. m.). The total land area of the Philippines is about 115,026 sq. m., and 92% of this is included in the eleven islands named above. There are twenty others, which have an area ranging from 106. sq m. to 682 sq. m., and the total number of islands enumerated within the archipelago is 3141; of these 2775 contain less than 1 sq. m. each.

Physical Features.—The islands are mainly of volcanic origin, and their surface is much broken by hills, isolated volcanoes and mountain ranges, trending north and south, north-west and south-east, or north-east and south-west. Extending for 350 m. along the east coast of central and northern Luzon is the Sierra Madre range, rising in occasional peaks to more than 4500 ft. and seldom less than 3500 ft. On the west coast are the Caraballos Occidentales north from the Gulf of Lingayén and the Zambales southward from that gulf to Manila Bay. The Caraballos Occidentales range is very complex; the central ridge is in some parts a rolling plateau, but it rises in Mt Datá to 7364 ft., and numerous lofty spurs project from it. Much of the Zambales range has an average height of 4000 ft. or more, and several peaks are more than 5000 ft. high. Between the Sierra Madre and Caraballos Occidentales is the valley of the Cagayán river, about 50 m. wide, and east of the Zambales range is a lowland basin, about 150 m. long and 50 m. wide, and not more than 100 ft. above the sea except near its centre, where the extinct volcano of Aráyat rises to 3564 ft. The greater part of southern Luzon is occupied by isolated volcanoes and irregular masses of hills and mountains. Mt Mayon (7916 ft.), near the south-eastern extremity, is an active volcano with an almost perfect cone. Of less prominence are Mt Banájao (7382 ft.), Mt Isarog (6634 ft.) and Mt Masaraga (5244 ft.). The island of Mindanao is traversed north to south by mountain ranges, which rise in their summits to heights exceeding 4000 ft. That along the east coast is longest and least broken, and between it and the next range inland is the level valley of the Agusan river, from 40 to 50 m. wide. Farther west and south-west is the valley of the Rio Grande Mindanao, the largest river on the island, and between the lower course of this river and the south coast is a mountain range with a north-west and south-east trend. On the east border of the south portion of the basin of the Rio Grande Mindanao is Mt Apo (10,312 ft.), an extinct volcano and the highest elevation in the archipelago.

Each of the larger islands between Luzon and Mindanao, except Samar and Bohol, is traversed longitudinally by a single mountain range with occasional spurs. In Leyte there are several isolated volcanic cones, two of which, in the north part, exceed 4000 ft. In Mindoro the range is broad, extending from coast to coast, and it culminates in Mt Halcón (about 8800 ft.). In Negros is Mt Canlaón (8192 ft.), a volcano, and several summits exceeding 6000 ft. In Panay is Mt Madiaás (7264 ft.) and several other peaks exceeding 4000 ft. The highest peaks in Masbate are about 2500 ft. high, and in Cebú not much more than 2000 ft. In Samar there are irregular masses of hills. The southern portion of Bohol is very hilly, but the northern portion is more level. Palawan, 275 m. long and about 15 m. wide, is traversed throughout its length by a range of mountains with an average height of 4000 to 5000 ft. and a few summits about 6000 ft. high. Submarine mountain ranges connect not only the islands within the archipelago, but also the archipelago itself with Borneo and Celebes, so that only shallow channels connect the interior waters with the Pacific Ocean and the China Sea. The coast-line of the Philippines, more than 11,000 m in length, is fringed with coral reefs and broken by numerous gulfs and bays.

The Cagayán river, in north Luzon, is the largest in the archipelago. It is about 220 m. long and drains to the northward about 10,000 sq. m., or nearly one-fourth of the island. The Rio Grande de Mindanao (known in its upper course as the Rio Pulangua) drains to the south and west a larger area in central and southern Mindanao and is second in size. It and the Agusan, which drains to the northward the mountain valley in east Mindanao, are each over 200 m. in length. The principal rivers of the lowland basin of central Luzon are the Pampanga and the Agno. The Pampanga rises in the highlands on the north-east border, flows south by west, and discharges through several channels into Manila Bay. The 