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 sovereign rights in the choice of their representatives, but the ignorance of the masses, their apathy, poverty and dependence upon the great land proprietors and industrial corporations practically defeat these fundamental constitutional provisions. Citizenship is accorded to all Peruvians over the age of 21 and to all married men under that age, and the right of suffrage to all citizens who can read and write, or possess real estate or workshops, or pay taxes. In all cases the exercise of citizenship is regulated by law.

The government is divided into three independent branches, legislative, executive and judicial, of which through force of circumstances the executive has become the dominating power. The executive branch consists of a president and two vice-presidents elected for terms of four years, a cabinet of six ministers of state appointed by the president, and various subordinate officials who are under the direct orders of the president. The president is chosen by a direct popular election and cannot be re-elected to succeed himself. He must be not less than 35 years of age, a Peruvian by birth, in the enjoyment of all his civil rights, and domiciled in the republic ten years preceding the election. The immediate supervision and despatch of public administrative affairs is in the hands of the cabinet ministers-interior, foreign affairs, war and marine, finance and commerce, justice and public instruction, and public works and promotion (fomento). The execution of the laws in the departments and provinces, as well as the maintenance of public order, is entrusted to prefects and sub-prefects, who are appointees of the president. A vacancy in the office of president is filled by one of the two vice-presidents elected at the same time and under the same conditions. Inability of the first vice-president to assume the office opens the way for the second vice-president, who becomes acting president until a successor is chosen, The vice-presidents cannot be candidates for the presidency during their occupancy of the supreme executive office, nor can the ministers of state, nor the general-in-chief of the army, while in the exercise of their official duties.

The legislative power is exercised by a national Congress—senate and chamber of deputies—meeting annually on the 28th of July in ordinary session for a period of 90 days. Senators and deputies are inviolable in the exercise of their duties, and cannot be arrested or imprisoned during a session of Congress, including the month preceding and following the session, except in flagrante delicto. Members of Congress are forbidden to accept any employment or benefit from the executive. Senators and deputies are elected by direct vote—the former by departments, and the latter in proportion to the population. With both are elected an equal number of substitutes, who assume office in case of vacancy.

Departments with eight and more provinces are entitled to four senators, those of four to seven provinces three senators, those of two to three provinces two senators, and those of one province one senator. The deputies are chosen to represent 15,000 to 30,000 population each, but every province must have at least one deputy. Both senators and deputies are elected for terms of six years, and both must be native-born Peruvian citizens in the full enjoyment of their civil rights. A senator must be 35 years of age, and have a yearly income of $1000. The age limit of a deputy is 25 years, and his income must be not less than $500. In both chambers the exercise of some scientific profession is accepted in lieu of the pecuniary income. No member of the executive branch of the government (president, cabinet minister, prefect, sub-prefect, or governor) can be elected to either chamber, nor can any judge or “fiscal” of the supreme court, nor any member of the ecclesiastical hierarchy from his diocese, province or parish, nor any Judge or “fiscal” of superior and first-instance courts from their judicial districts, nor any military officer from the district where he holds a military appointment at the time of election. No country is provided with more and better safeguards against electoral and official abuses than is Peru, and yet few countries suffered more from political disorder during the 19th century. The president has no veto power, but has the right to return a law to Congress with comments within a period of ten days. Should the act be again passed without amendments it becomes law; if, however, the suggested amendments are accepted the act must go over to the next session. Congress may also sit as a court of impeachment—the senate hearing and deciding the case, and the chamber acting as prosecutor. The president, ministers of state and judges of the supreme court may be brought before this court.

Justice.—The judiciary is composed of a supreme court, superior courts and courts of first instance, and justices of the peace, The supreme court is established at the national capital and consists of 11 judges and 2 “fiscals” or prosecutors. The judges are selected by Congress from lists of nominees submitted by the executive. The judges of the superior courts are chosen by the president from the list of nominees submitted by the supreme court. Questions of jurisdiction between the superior and supreme courts, as well as questions of like character between the supreme court and the executive, are decided by the senate sitting as a court. The courts of first instance are established in the capitals of provinces and their judges are chosen by the superior courts of the districts in which they are located. The independence of the Peruvian courts has not been scrupulously maintained, and there has been much criticism of their character and decisions.

The national executive appoints and removes the prefects of the departments and the sub-prefects of the provinces, and the prefects appoint the gobiernadores of the districts. The police officials throughout the republic are also appointees of the president and are under his orders.

Army.—After the Chilean War the disorders fomented by the rival military officers led to a desire to place the administration of public affairs under civilian control, This led to a material reduction in the army, which, as reorganized, consists of 4000 officers and men, divided into seven battalions of infantry of 300 men each, seven squadrons of cavalry of 125 men each, and one regiment of mountain artillery of 590 men, with six batteries of mountain guns. The reorganization of the army was carried out by 10 officers and 4 non-coms. of the French army, known as the French military mission, who are also charged with the direction of the military school at Chorrillos and all branches of military instruction There are a military high school, preparatory school, and “school of application” in connexion with the training of young officers for the army. The head of the mission is chief of staff. Formerly the Indians were forcibly pressed into the service and the whites filled the positions of officers, in great part untrained. Now military service is obligatory for all Peruvians between the ages of 19 and 50, who are divided into four classes, first and second reserves (19 to 30, and 30 to 35 years), supernumeraries (those who have purchased exemption from service in the regular army), and the national guard 35 to 50 years). The regular force is maintained by annual drawings from the lists of young men 19 years of age in the first reserves, who are required to serve four years. The direction of military affairs is entrusted to a general staff, which was reorganized in 1904 on the lines adopted by the great military powers of Europe. The republic is divided into four military districts with headquarters at Piura, Lima, Arequipa and Iquitos, and these into eleven circumscriptions, The mounted police force of the republic is also organized on a military basis.

Navy.—The Peruvian navy was practically annihilated in the war with Chile, and the poverty of the country prevented for many years the adoption of any measure for its rebuilding. In 1908 it consisted of only five vessels. The naval school at Callao is under the direction of an officer of the French navy. In addition to the foregoing the government has a few small river boats on the Marafion and its tributaries, which are commanded by naval officers and used to maintain the authority of the republic and carry on geographical and hydrographical work.

Finance.—The financial record of Peru, notwithstanding her enormous natural resources, has been one of disaster and discredit. Internal strife at first prevented the development of her resources, and then when the export of guano and nitrates supplied her treasury with an abundance of, funds the money was squandered on extravagant enterprises and in corrupt practices. This was followed by the loss of these resources, bankruptcy, and eventually the surrender of her principal assets to her foreign creditors. The government then had to readjust expenditures to largely diminished resources; but the obligation has been met intelligently and courageously, and since 1895 there has been an improvement in the financial state of the country. The public revenues are derived from customs, taxes, various inland and consumption taxes, state monopolies, the government wharves, posts and telegraphs, &c. The customs taxes include import and export duties, surcharges, harbour dues, warehouse charges, &c.; the inland taxes comprise consumption taxes on alcohol, tobacco, sugar and matches, stamps and stamped paper, capital and mining properties, licences, transfers of property, &c.; and the state monopolies cover opium and salt. In 1905 a loan of £600,000 was floated in Germany for additions to the navy, The growth of receipts and expenditures is shown in the following table:—

The revenues of 1896 were only £1,128,714.

The foreign debt began with a small loan of £1,200,000 in London in 1822, and another of £1,500,000 in 1825 of which only £716,515 was placed. At the end of the war, these loans, and sums owing to Chile and Colombia, raised the foreign debt to £4,000,000. In