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Rh 1899); Magnan, Le Delire chronique (Paris, 1890); Stewart Paton, Psychiatry (Philadelphia, 1905); Percy Smith, "Paranoia," in Journ. of Mental Science (1904), p. 607.

PARAPET (Ital. parapetto, Fr. parapet, from para, imperative of Ital. parare, to cover, defend, and petto, breast, Lat. pectus; the German word is Brustwehr), a dwarf wall along the edge of a roof, or round a lead flat, terrace walk, &c., to prevent persons from falling over, and as a protection to the defenders in case of a siege. Parapets are either plain, embattled, perforated or panelled. The last two are found in all styles except the Romanesque. Plain parapets are simply portions of the wall generally overhanging a little, with a coping at the top and corbel table below. Embattled parapets are sometimes panelled, but oftener pierced for the discharge of arrows, &c. Perforated parapets are pierced in various devices—as circles, trefoils, quatrefoils and other designs—so that the light is seen through. Panelled parapets are those ornamented by a series of panels, either oblong or square, and more or less enriched, but are not perforated. These are common in the Decorated and Perpendicular periods.

 PARAPHERNALIA (Lat. paraphernalia, sc. bona, from Gr. παράφερνα; παρά, beside, and φερνή, dower), a term originally of Roman law, signifying all the property which a married woman who was sui juris held apart from her dower (dos). A husband could not deal with such except with his wife’s consent. Modern systems of law, which are based on the Roman, mainly follow the same principle, and the word preserves its old meaning. In English and Scottish the term is confined to articles of jewelry, dress and other purely personal things, for the law relating to which see. The word is also used in a general sense of accessories, external equipment, cumbersome or showy trappings.

 PARAPHRASE (Gr. παράφρασις, from παραφράζειν, to relate something in different words, παρά, beside, and φράζειν, speak, tell), a rendering into other words of a passage in prose or verse, giving the sense in a fuller, simpler or clearer fashion, also a free translation or adaptation of a passage in a foreign language. The term is specifically used in the Scottish and other Presbyterian churches of metrical versions for singing of certain passages of the Bible.

 PARASCENIUM (Gr. TrapaaKijviov), in a Greek theatre, the wall on either side of the stage, reaching from the back wall (cFKr^vq) to the orchestra.

 PARASITE (From Gr. Trapa, beside, (Tiros food), literally " mess-mate, " a term originally conveying no idea of reproach or contempt, as in later times. The early parasites may be divided into two classes, religious and civil. The former were assistants of the priests, their chief duty being to collect the corn dues which were contributed by the farmers of the temple lands or which came in from other sources (Athenaeus vi. 235; Pollux vi. 35). Considerable obscurity exists as to their other functions, but they seem to have been charged with providing food for the visitors to the temples, with the care of certain offerings, and with the arrangement of the sacrificial banquets. In Attica the parasites appear to have been confined to certain demes (Acharnae, Diomeia), and were appointed by the demes to which the temples belonged. The " civil " parasites were a class of persons who received invitations to dine in the prytaneum and subsequently in the tholos) as distinguished from those who had the right to dine there ex officio. An entirely different meaning ( sponger  ) became attached to the word from the character introduced into the Middle and New Comedy, first by Alexis, and firmly established by Diphilus. The chief object of this class of parasites was a good dinner, for which they were ready to submit to almost any humiliation. Numerous examples occur in the comedies of Plautus; and Alciphron and Athenaeus (vi. 236 sqq.) give instances of the insults they had to put up with at the hands of both host and guests. Some of them played the part of professional jesters (like the later buffoons and court fools), and kept collections of witticisms ready for use at their patrons' table; others relied upon flattery, others again condescended to the most degrading devices (Plutarch, De adulatory, 23; De cducalione puerorutn, 17). The term parasite, from meaning a " hanger-on, " has been transferred to any hving creature which lives on another one.

See Juvenal v. 170 with J. E. B. Mayor's note, and the exhaustive article by M. H. Meier in Ersch and Gruher's Allgemeine Encyclopddie.

 PARASITIC DISEASES. It has long been recognized that various specific pathological conditions are due to the presence and action of parasites (see Parasitism) in the human body, but in recent years the part played in the causation of the so-called infective diseases by various members of the Schizomycetes— fission fungi — and by Protozoan and other animal parasites has been more widely and more thoroughly investigated (see Bacteriology). The knowledge gained has not only modified our conception of the pathology of these diseases, but has had a most important influence upon our methods of treatment of sufferers, both as individuals and as members of communities. For clinical and other details of the diseases mentioned in the following classification, see the separate articles on them; the present article is concerned mainly with important modern discoveries as regards aetiology and pathology. In certain cases indeed the aetiology is still obscure. Thus, according to Guarnieri, and Councilman & Calkins, there is associated with vaccinia and with small-pox a Protozoan parasite, Cytoryctes variolae. Guar. This parasite is described as present in the cytoplasm of the stratified epithelium of the skin and mucous membranes in cases of vaccinia, but in the nuclei of the same cells in cases of variola or small-pox, whilst it is suggested that there may be a third phase of existence, not yet demonstrated, in which it occurs as minute spores or germs which are very readily carried in dust and by air currents from point to point. In certain other conditions, such as mumps, dengue, epidemic dropsy, oriental sore — with which the Leishman-Donovan bodies {Helcoso})ia tropicum, Wright) are supposed to be closely associated (see also Kdla-dzar below) — verruga, framboesia or yaws — with which is commonly associated a spirochaete (CasteUani) and a special micro coccus (Pierez, Nicholls) — and beri-beri, the disease may be the result of the action of specific micro-organisms, though as yet it has not been possible to demonstrate any aetiologica relationship between any microorganisms found and the special disease. Such diseases as haemoglobin uric fever or black-water fever, which are also presumably parasitic diseases, are probably associated directly with malaria; this supposition is the more probable in that both of these are recognized as occurring specially in those patients who have been weakened by malaria.

The following classification is based partly upon the biological relations of the parasites and partly on the pathological phenomena of individual diseases:-

A. — Diseases due to Vegetable Parasites.

I. — To SCHIZOMYCETES, BACTERIA OR FiSSION FUNGL

I. Caused by the Pyogenetic Micrococci.

Suppuration and Septicaemia. Erysipelas. Infective Endocarditis. Gonorrhoea.

2. Caused by Specific Bacilli.

(a) Acute laftctive Fevers.

Cholera. ■ Infective Meningitis.

Typhoid Fever. Influenza.

Malta Fever. Yellow Fever and Weil's Disease.

Relapsing Fever. Diphtheria.

Plague. Tetanus.

Pneumonia.

(6) More Chronic lafectlva Diseases (tissue parasUes). Tuberculosis. Glanders. Leprosy.

II. — To Higher Vegetable Parasites. Actinomycosis, Madura Foot, Aspergillosis and other Mycoses.

B. — Diseases due to Animal Parasites. I. — To Protozoa.

Malaria. Kala-azar.

Amoebic Dysentery. Tsetse-fly Disease.

Haemoglobinuric Fever. Sleeping Sickness.

Syphilis.

II. — To OTHER Animal Parasites.

Filariasis, &c.