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Rh and Scripturae graecae specimina (1883); Wattenbach and von Velsen, ''Exempla codd. graec. litt. minusc. scriptorum'' (1878); H. Omont, ''Facsim. des MSS. grecs datés de la bibl. nat.'' (1891), ''Facsim. des plus anciens MSS. de la bibl. nat. (1892), and Facsim.'' ''des MSS. grecs des xv. et xvi. siècles (1887); A. Martin, Facsim.'' ''des MSS. grecs d’Espagne (1891); O. Lehmann, Die tachygr.'' Abkürzungen ''der griech. Handschriften; T. W. Allen, Notes on Abbreviations'' in Greek MSS. (1889).

Latin Palaeography: J. Mabillon, De re diplomatica (1709); Tassin and Toustain, Nouveau traité de diplomatique (1750–1765); T. Madox, Formulare anglicanum (1702); G. Hickes, Linguarum ''septent. thesaurus (1703–1705); F. S. Maffei, Istoria diplomatica'' (1727); G. Marini, I Papiri diplomatici (1805); G. Bessel, Chronicon gotwicense (1732); A. Fumagalli, Delle Istituzioni diplomatiche (1802); U. F. Kopp, Palaeographia critica (1817–1829); T. Sickel, ''Schrifttaf. aus dem Nachlasse von U. F. von Kopp (1870); C. T. G. Schönemann, Versuch eines vollständ. Systems der ält. Diplomatik'' (1818); T. Sickel, Lehre von den Urkunden der ersten Karolinger (1867); J. Ficker, Beiträge zur Urkundenlehre (1877–1888); N. de Wailly, Éléments de paléographie (1838); A. Chassant, Paléographie des chartes, &c. (1885); L. Delisle, Mélanges de paléographie, &c. (1880), Études paléographiques, &c. (1886), Memoire sur l’école calligraphique de Tours (1885); W. Wattenbach, Anleitung zur ''latein. Palaeographie (1886); A. Gloria, Compendio di paleografia'', &c. (1870); C. Paoli, Programma di paleografia lat. e di diplomatica (1888–1900); H. Bresslau, Handbuch der Urkundenlehre (1889); M. Prou, Manuel de paléographie (1891); A. Giry, Manuel de diplomatique (1894); F. Leist, Urkundenlehre (1893); E. H. J. Reusens, Éléments de paléographie (1897–1899); W. Arndt, Schrifttafeln ''zur Erlernung der latein. Palaeographie (1887–1888); C. Wessely, Schrifttaf. zur älteren latein. Palaeographie (1898); F. Steffens, Latein. Palaeographie-Tafeln'' (1903, &c.); C. Zangemeister, Inscriptiones pompeianae [C.I.L. iv.] (1871), and Tabulae ceratae Pompeis repertae [C.I.L. iv.] (1898); Nicole and Morel, Archives militaires du premier siècle (1900); J. F. Massmann, Libellus aurarius sive tabulae ceratae (1841); T. Mommsen, Instrumenta dacica in ''tab. cerat. conscripta'' [C.I.L. iii.] (1873); A. Champollion-Figeac, ''Chartes et MSS. sur papyrus (1840); J. A. Letronne, Diplômes et'' chartes de l’époque merovingienne (1845–1866); J. Tardif, Facsim. de chartes et diplomes merovingiens et carlovingiens (1866); von Sybel and Sickel, Kaiserurkunden in Abbildungen (1880–1891); J. Pflugk-Harttung, ''Specim. select. chart. pontiff. roman.'' (1885–1887); Zangemeister and Wattenbach, ''Exempla codd. lat. litt.'' ''majusc. scriptorum (1876–1879); E. Chatelain, Uncialis scriptura'' ''codd. lat. (1901–1902); A. Champollion-Figeac, Paléographie des'' classiques latins (1839); E. Chatelain, Paléographie des classiques latins (1884–1900); Musée des archives nationales (1872); Musée des archives departementales (1878); L. Delisle, Album paléographique (1887); T. Sickel, ''Monumenta graphica ex archiv. et bibl. imp.'' austriaci collecta (1858–1882); W. Schum, ''Exempla codd. amplon.'' erfurtensium (1882); A. Chroust, Denkmäler der Schriftkunst des Mittelalters (1899, &c.); Monaci and Paoli, ''Archivio paleogr. italiano'' (1882–1890); M. Monaci, Facsimili di antichi manoscritti (1881–1883); M. Morcaldi, ''Codex diplom. cavensis'' (1873, &c.); L. Tosti, Bibliotheca casinensis (1873–1880); Paleografia artistica di Montecassino (1876–1881); Ewald and Loewe, Exempla scripturae visigoticae (1883); C. Rodriguez, Bibliotheca universal de la polygraphia española (1738); A. Merino, Escuela paleographica (1780); J. Munos y Rivero, Paleografia visigoda (1881), Manual de paleografia diplomatica española (1890), and Chrestomathia palaeographica (1890); E. A. Bond, ''Facsim. of Ancient Charters in the British'' Museum (1873–1878); W. B. Sanders, ''Facsim. of Anglo-Saxon MSS.'' (charters) (1878–1884), and ''Facsim. of National MSS. of England'' (1865–1868); Warner and Ellis, ''Facsim. of Royal and other Charters'' in the British Museum (1903); C. Innes, ''Facsim. of National MSS.'' of Scotland (1867–1871); J. Anderson, Selectus diplomatum et numismatum Scotiae thesaurus (1739); J. T. Gilbert, ''Facsim. of'' ''National MSS. of Ireland (1874–1884); E. Chatelain, Introduction à'' la lecture des notes tironiennes (1900); J. L. Walther, Lexicon Diplomaticum (1747); A. Chassant, Dictionnaire des abréviations latines et françaises (1884); A. Cappelli, Dizionario di abreviature latine ed italiche (1889); L. Traube, Nomina sacra (1907); A. Wright, Court-Hand restored (1879); C. T. Martin, The Record Interpreter (1892).

The application of photographic processes to the reproduction of entire MSS. has received great impetus during the last few years, and will certainly be widely extended in the future. Many of the most ancient biblical and other MSS. have been thus reproduced; the librarians of the university of Leiden are issuing a great series comprising several of the oldest classical MSS.; and under the auspices of the pope and the Italian government famous MSS. in the Vatican and other libraries in Italy are being published by this method; not to mention the issue of various individual MSS. by other corporate bodies or private persons.

 PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. , old, and  , stone), in anthropology, the characteristic epithet of the Drift or early Stone Age when Man shared the possession of Europe with the mammoth, the cave-bear, the woolly-haired rhinoceros and other extinct

animals. The epoch is characterized by flint implements of the rudest type and never polished. The fully authenticated remains of palaeolithic man are few, and discoveries are confined to certain areas, e.g. France and north Italy. The reason is that interment appears not to have been practised by the river-drift hunters, and the only bones likely to be found would be those accidentally preserved in caves or rock-shelters. The first actual find of a palaeolithic implement was that of a rudely fashioned flint in a sandbank at Menchecourt in 1841 by Boucher de Perthes. Further discoveries have resulted in the division of the Palaeolithic Age into various epochs or sequences according to the faunas associated with the implements or the localities where found. One classification makes three divisions for the epoch, characterized respectively by the existence of the cave-bear, the mammoth and reindeer; another, two, marked by the prevalence of the mammoth and reindeer respectively. These divisions are, however, unsatisfactory, as the fauna relied on as characteristic must have existed synchronously. The four epochs or culture-sequences of G. de Mortillet have met with the most general acceptance. They are called from the places in France where the most typical finds of palaeolithic remains have been made—Chellian from Chelles, a few miles east of Paris; Mousterian from the cave of Moustier on the river Vézère, Dordogne; Solutrian from the cave at Solutré near Macon; and Madelenian from the rocky shelter of La Madeleine, Dordogne.  PALAEOLOGUS, a Byzantine family name which first appears in history about the middle of the 11th century, when George Palaeologus is mentioned among the prominent supporters of Nicephorus Botaniates, and afterwards as having helped to raise Alexius I. Comnenus to the throne in 1081; he is also noted for his brave defence of Durazzo against the Normans in that year. Michael Palaeologus, probably his son, was sent by Manuel II. Comnenus into Italy as ambassador to the court of Frederick I. in 1154; in the following year he took part in the campaign against William of Sicily, and died at Bari in 1155. A son or brother of Michael, named George, received from the emperor Manuel the title of Sebastos, and was entrusted with several important missions; it is uncertain whether he ought to be identified with the George Palaeologus who took part in the conspiracy which dethroned Isaac Angelus in favour of Alexius Angelus in 1195. Andronicus Palaeologus Comnenus was Great Domestic under Theodore Lascaris and John Vatatzes; his eldest son by Irene Palaeologina, (q.v.), became the eighth emperor of that name in 1260, and was in turn followed by his son Andronicus II. (1282–1328). Michael, the son of Andronicus, and associated with him in the empire, died in 1320, but left a son, Andronicus III., who reigned from 1328 to 1341; John VI. (1355–1391), Manuel II. (1391–1425) and John VII. (1425–1448) then followed in lineal succession; Constantine XI. or XII., the last emperor of the East (1448–1453), was the younger brother of John VII. Other brothers were Demetrius, prince of the Morea until 1460, and Thomas, prince of Achaia, who died at Rome in 1465. A daughter of Thomas, Zoe by name, married Ivan III. of Russia. A younger branch of the Palaeologi held the principality of Monferrat from 1305 to 1533, when it became extinct.

See, and articles on the separate rulers.

 PALAEONTOLOGY (Gr. , ancient, neut. pl.  , beings, and  , discourse, science), the science of extinct forms of life. Like many other natural sciences, this study dawned among the Greeks. It was retarded and took false directions until the revival of learning in Italy. It became established as a distinct branch in the beginning of the 19th century, and somewhat later received the appellation “palaeontology,” which was given independently by De Blainville and by Fischer von Waldheim about 1834. In recent years the science of vegetable palaeontology has been given the distinct name of  (q.v.), so that “palaeontology” among biologists mainly refers to zoology; but historically the two cannot be disconnected.

Palaeontology both borrow's from and sheds light upon geology and other branches of the physical history of the earth,