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Rh Byzantine gold; but Richiar (448–456) issued a denarius in his own name. (C) The Ostrogoths (Italy, 489–553) were preceded by the Herulian Odoacer (476–494), who coined silver and bronze; their kings (including Theodoric, 493–526, and Totila or Baduila, 541–552) issued gold, silver and bronze in their own names, from Rome, Ravenna, Milan, &c. (D) The Lombards (Italy, 568–774) had no coins in their own names before Grimoald, duke of Beneventum (662–671); later there are gold solidi and thirds and silver from many mints; Gold was issued for the duchy of Beneventum in the 8th century. (E) The Burgundians (Gaul, to 534) first issued recognizable coins under Gondebald (473–516). (F) The Visigoths (South Gaul and Spain) had imitative gold thirds in the 5th and 6th centuries; the kings’ names appear from Leovigild (573–586) to Roderic (710–711). Sixty-one mints were in operation. (G) The Meroving Franks first issued under Clovis I. (481–511) coins recognizably Frankish (solidi and thirds) Royal names first appear on silver and copper under Theuderic of Austrasia (511–534) and Childebert I. of Paris (511–558). The chief Frankish inscribed coinage is, however, of gold solidi and thirds, from Theodebert I. (534–548), who broke down the Roman imperial prerogative and issued gold with his own name in full, to the beginning of the 8th century. The last Merovings issued no coins in their own names, being mere puppets. And from the middle of the 6th century the coins with kings’ names are far less numerous than those bearing the names only of mints and moneyers; some 800 places (not only in what is now France, but in Germany, the Low Countries and Switzerland) are thus named (Pl. III. fig. 12). This coinage seems to have been intimately connected with the fiscal organization, though the generally accepted theory that the taxes collected in each place were there and then converted into money is by no means proved. Certain religious establishments also possessed the right of coining in their own name. The close of the Meroving dynasty saw a revival of silver in the saiga, which heralded the introduction of the denier. (H) The Anglo-Saxons began with an imitative coinage similar to the Merovingian, viz. gold, solidi and thirds, and silver sceattas (＝treasure, Ger. Schatz) of about 20 grains troy, and stycas (＝pieces, Ger. Stück), first of silver, then of copper. The gold is rare and confined to the south; only two solidi are known, imitations of Honorius, with runic legends on the reverse. The types of the gold thirds, as of the coinage in other metals (which does not begin until the 7th century), are derived more or less directly from Roman. Some of the inscribed sceattas bear the name of London in Roman letters; others, in runes, the names of Epa and Peada (who is perhaps the son of Penda), king of Mercia (d. 655). Sceattas with runic inscriptions were also issued in East Anglia towards the end of the 8th century. But the sceatta was superseded by the penny introduced by Offa (757–796). Offa also struck a gold coin, bearing his name and an inscription copied directly from an almost contemporary Arab coin; but this is quite an exceptional issue, represented now by a unique specimen. The styca, which begins c. 670, was characteristic of the Northumbrian coinage, lasting, long after the introduction of the penny farther south, down to the Danish invasions of the second half of the 9th century. A series was issued by the archbishops of York. Wigmund (837–854) struck a gold solidus inscribed MVNVS DIVINVM, copied from the solidi of Louis le Debonnaire, and evidently meant for a religious purpose (Pl. III. fig. 11). For the whole question of Anglo-Saxon coins see : Anglo-Saxon. (I) The Frisians had a small coinage of gold thirds (imitated from Byzantine), and one with the name of Audulfus also exists (end of the 6th century?). The chief mint was probably Doccum.

We now proceed to the consideration of the coinages of the various countries from the 8th century to modern times. The money of Portugal begins, after the expulsion of the Moors, with Alphonso I. (1112); it is exclusively regal, and not of great interest except as affording indications of the wealth and commercial activity of the state in the early part of

the 18th century. The coinage of Spain, after the reconquest from the Moors, is almost without exception regal. The kingdom of Navarre had a coinage from the time of Sancho III. (1000–1035). The series of Castile and Leon begins with Alphonso VI. (1053) with deniers and obols. Aragon first has coins under Sancho Ramirez I. (1063). Gold (imitated from

Moorish money) is introduced in the middle of the 12th century. A plentiful coinage was issued after the union of the crowns in 1479. The Spanish dollar of the 17th and 18th centuries was one of the most widely circulating currencies in the West (see Pl. V. fig. 5). The medals of Spain are not important.

In 755 Pippin abolished the gold coinage of his Merovingian predecessors and introduced the silver denier (see Pl. III. fig. 10); the coinage became a royal prerogative once more, and was confined to a few mints. The denier, which at first weighed c. 1·28 gramme (19 grains), was for centuries the most important of European silver coins. Under Charlemagne

the weight was slightly raised; the Caroline monogram appears, and there are other modifications in the types. Charlemagne also issued money from various Italian, German and Spanish mints. He also introduced the obol, and struck gold (chiefly at Italian mints). Among his types must be noted the temple with the inscription XPISTIANA RELIGIO. Louis le Debonnaire (814–840) was the last Carolingian to strike gold. In the 9th century are perceptible the first traces of the movement which led to the extensive feudal coinage. The advent of the house of Capet made no great change in the system, but the feudal issues now become important. The most widespread denier was that of the abbey of St Martin at Tours (denier tournois); the royal coinage was known as the monnaie parisis. St Louis (1226–1270) effected a great reform late in his reign, making the sou (hitherto a money of account) into a real coin as the gros (see Pl. III. fig. 14), and introducing a gold coinage. Henceforward the coinage increases in complexity; in the 14th century it has great artistic merit (see Pl. III. fig. 17). The French medals are far more interesting than the modern coins. The earliest of artistic importance not by Italian artists show nevertheless strong Italian influence (medals of Charles VIII. and Anne of Brittany, of Philibert of Savoy and Margaret of Austria). A series of large medallions of the Valois is attributed to Germain Pilon. The most characteristically French artists are Guillaume Dupré (working 1595–1643) and Jean and Claude Warin (middle and second half of 17th century). The long historical series of Louis XIV. has no artistic value; but that of the Napoleonic period shows great technical ability on the part of artists like Andrieu, in spite of the false classicalism of their designs.

The silver penny was introduced into England by Offa, king of Mercia (757–796), following the lead of Pippin in France (see Pl. III. fig. 13). It soon rose in weight to about 22 grains troy (1·42 gramme), at which it long remained. The types were usually, obverse the king’s head, or some form of cross or religious symbol; reverse some form of cross, religious

symbol or ornament. The inscriptions gave the names of the king and of the moneyer, later also the mint. An important gold coin of Offa was imitated from an Arab dinar of 774, with the addition of the words OFFA REX. The Mercian coinage ends about 874. The pennies of the kings of Kent extend from 765 to 825; the archbishops of Canterbury went on striking to the beginning of the 10th century. The East Anglian regal series extends to 890; the memorial coinage of St Edmund circulated largely in East Anglia in the 9th century. The penny appears in Northumbria with the Dane Halfdan (875–877) and continues to the middle of the next century. A coinage of “St Peter” pennies was issued from York c. 920–940. The coinage of Wessex begins with Ecgbert, probably c. 825, when he got possession of the mint at Canterbury (see Pl. III. fig. 15 with the name of London). The coinage marks the gradual growth of Wessex, until England is united under Edgar (957–975). There is henceforward for a long time no change of great importance in the coinage, which continued to consist of pennies, with rare half-pennies (the pennies were usually cut into halves and quarters along the lines of the cross to make small change). During the reign of Stephen the monotony is relieved by a few issues by barons like Robert, earl of Gloucester. The number of mints is much reduced by the time of Henry III., and the moneyers cease