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 strongly against this development when it was propounded by Fichte, and held that he had precluded it by his “refutation of idealism”: he stood unshakably to the belief in an absolutely real world behind phenomena. Kant’s position may be illogical as he himself stated it; but it is the expression of a sound principle: we must connect it with his general tendency to recognize the dynamic side of things. He saw, what so many of his successors failed to see, that the world as we know it is an expression of power; and he could not imagine whence the power could come if not from a world beyond phenomena. (See ; .)

 NOVALICHES, MANUEL PAVIA Y LACY, (1814–1896), Spanish marshal, was born at Granada on the 6th of July 1814. He was the son of Colonel Pavia, and after a few years at the Jesuit school of Valencia he entered the Royal Artillery Academy at Segovia. In 1833 he became a lieutenant in the guards of Queen Isabella II., and during the Carlist War from 1833 to 1840 he became general of division in the latter year at the early age of twenty-six. The Moderate party made him war minister in 1847, and sent him to Catalonia, where his efforts to put down a Carlist rising were not attended with success. He had been made a senator in 1845, and marquis in 1848. He was sent out to Manila in 1852 as captain-general of the Philippine Islands. In April 1854 he crushed with much sternness a formidable insurrection and carried out many useful reforms. On his return to Spain he married the countess of Santa Isabel, and commanded the reserves in the Peninsula during the war with Morocco. He refused the war portfolio twice offered him by Marshals O'Donnell and Narvaez and undertook to form a cabinet of Moderates in 1864 that lived but a few days. He volunteered to crush the insurrection in Madrid on the 22nd of June 1866, and when the revolution broke out in September 1868 accepted the command of Queen Isabella’s troops. He was defeated by Marshal Serrano at the bridge of Alcolea on the 28th of September 1868, and was so badly Wounded in the face that he was disfigured for life He kept apart during the revolution and went to meet King Alfonso when he landed at Valencia in January 1875. The Restoration made the marquis de Novaliches a senator, and the new king gave him the Golden Fleece. He died in Madrid on the 22nd of October 1896.

NOVALIS, the pseudonym of (1772–1801), German poet and novelist. The name was taken, according to family records, from an ancestral estate. He was born on the 2nd of May 1772 on his father’s estate at Oberwiederstedt in Prussian Saxony. His parents were members of the Moravian (Herrnhuter) sect, and the strict religious training of his youth is largely reflected in his literary works. From the gymnasium of Eisleben he passed, in 1790, as a student of philosophy, to the university of Jena, where he was befriended by Schiller. He next studied law at Leipzig, when he formed a friendship with Friedrich Schlegel, and finally at Wittenberg, where, in 1794, he took his degree. His father’s cousin, the Prussian minister Hardenberg, now offered him a government post at Berlin; but the father feared the influence upon his son of the loose-living statesman, and sent him to learn the practical duties of his profession under the Kreisamtmann (district administrator) of Tennstedt near Langensalza. In the following year he was appointed auditor to the government saltworks in Weissenfels, of which his father was director. His grief at the death in 1797 of Sophie von Kühn, to whom he had become betrothed in Tennstedt, found expression in the beautiful Hymnen an die Nacht (first published in the Athenäum, 1800). A few months later he entered the Mining Academy of Freiberg in Saxony to study geology under Professor Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750–1817), whom in the fragment Die Lehrlinge zu Sais he immortalized as the “Meister.” Here he again became engaged to be married, and the next two years were fruitful in poetical productions. In the autumn of 1799 he read at Jena to the admiring circle of young romantic poets his Geistliche Lieder. Several of these, such as “Wenn alle untreu werden,” “Wenn ich ihn nur habe,” “Unter tausend frohen Stunden,” still retain, as church hymns, great popularity. In 1800 he was appointed Amtshauptmann (local magistrate) in Thuringia, and was preparing to marry and settle, when pulmonary consumption rapidly set in, of which he died at Weissenfels on the 25th of March 1801.

His works were issued in two volumes by his friends Ludwig Tieck and Friedrich Schlegel (2 vols. 1802; a third volume was added in 1846). They are for the most part fragments, of which Heinrich von Ofterdingen, an unfinished romance, is the chief. It was undertaken at the instance of Tieck, and reflects the ideas and tendencies of the older Romantic School, of which Hardenberg was a leading member. Heinrich von Ofterdingen’s search for the mysterious “blue flower” is an allegory of the poet’s life set in a romantic medieval world. Novalis, however, did not succeed in blending his mystic and philosophical conceptions into a harmonious whole. The “fragments” contain idealistic though paradoxical views on philosophy, art, natural science, mathematics, &c.

NOVARA, a town and episcopal see, of Piedmont, Italy, capital of the province of Novara, 31 m. by rail W. of Milan, 538 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906) 37,962 (town), 48,694 (commune). Railways diverge hence to Varallo Sesia, Orta, Arona (for Domodossola), Busto Arsizio, Milan, Vigevano and Vercelli. Previous to 1839 Novara was still surrounded by its old Spanish ramparts, but it is now an open, modern-looking town. Part of the old citadel is used as a prison. The cathedral dates from the 4th century (?), but (with the exception of the octagonal dome-roofed baptistery belonging to the first part of the 10th century, and separated from the west end by an atrium) was rebuilt between 1860 and 1870 after designs by Antonelli; the church of S Gaudenzio, dedicated to Bishop Gaudentius (d. 417), who is buried under the high altar, rebuilt by Pellegrino Tibaldi about 1570, has a baroque campanile and a dome 396 ft. high, the latter added by Antonelli in 1875–1878; and San Pietro del Rosario is the church in which the papal anathema was pronounced against the followers of Fra Dolcino. The two first contain pictures by Gaudenzio Ferrari. The city also contains handsome market-buildings erected in 1817–1842, a large hospital dating from the 9th century and a courthouse constructed in 1346. The town has also a museum of Roman antiquities. The principal industry is the carding and spinning of silk; there are also iron-works and foundries, cotton mills, rice-husking mills, organ factories, dye-works and printing works.

Novara, the ancient Novaria, according to Pliny a place of Celtic origin, according to Cato (but wrongly) of Ligurian origin, was a municipal city, and lay on the road between Vercellae and Mediolanum. Its rectangular plan may well be a survival of Roman days. Dismantled in 386 by Maximus for siding with his rival Valentinian, it was restored by Theodosius; but it was afterwards ravaged by Radagaisus (405) and Attila (452). A dukedom of Novara was constituted by the Lombards, a countship by Charlemagne. In 1110 the city was taken and burned by the emperor Henry V. Before the close of the 12th century it accepted the protection of Milan, and thus passed into the hands, first, of the Visconti, and, secondly, of the Sforzas. In 1706 the city, which had long before been ceded by Maria Visconti to Amadeus VIII. of Savoy, was occupied by the Savoy troops. At the peace of Utrecht it passed to the house of Austria with the duchy of Milan; but, having been occupied by Charles Emmanuel in 1734, it was granted to him in the following year. Under the French it was the chief town of the department of Agogna. Restored to Savoy in 1814, it was in 1821 the scene of the defeat of the Piedmontese by the Austrians, and in 1849 of the more disastrous battle which led to the abdication of