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 only on Turtle Mountains, in the vicinity of streams, and in a few other places sheltered from wind and sun. North Dakota’s total woodland area is estimated at 600 sq. m., or less than 1% of its entire surface. No other state in the Union has such a relatively small area of forest. By an executive proclamation, which came into effect on the 24th of November 1908, a Federal forest reservation of 21·8 sq. m. was created. The prairies of the more humid regions are covered with valuable grasses, and with masses of showy native flowers, which bloom from spring to autumn. The pasque flower is found on all the prairies and is the earliest to appear. The Bad Lands exhibit a vegetation typical of semi-arid regions. Cottonwoods flourish along the Little Missouri river, and in sheltered ravines grow stunted junipers and cedars, which seldom rise above the crest of some protecting bluff. Poplars grow in the valleys, and the cactus and sage brush are common. The faces of buttes and ravines that are turned toward the sun are usually devoid of vegetation.

Climate.—There are no mountains, forests or large bodies of water to moderate the extremes of summer and winter, and the uniformity of topography makes the ranges of temperature for different parts of the state very nearly the same. Between the extreme northern and southern sections there is a range of only 6° F. The mean annual temperature for the state is 39° F., with an extreme of 110° recorded for the summer and a minimum of −54° for the winter. As a general rule, temperatures are highest in the W. and lowest in the E. In the central region of the state (at Jamestown, Stutsman county) the mean annual temperature is 40°; the mean for the winter, 10°, with a minimum of −40° recorded in February; the mean for the summer is 67°, with an extreme of 103° recorded in July. The winters are long and severe. The season, however, on account of the dryness of the climate, is not so harsh as the low temperatures would seem to indicate. The seasons are sharply demarked; both winter and summer come suddenly. The summers are short, but as there are sixteen hours of sunlight per day in midsummer, vegetation grows rapidly. Killing frosts often occur in June and return again early in September. High winds are frequent, and prairie houses are often protected by rows of trees called “wind breaks.” During the growing season the winds are usually light, but in the late summer and autumn occasional dry, hot, southerly winds (“hot southers”) prove very destructive to vegetation. Tornadoes are not unknown, and local hail storms are frequent in the summer, but do little damage. The total precipitation for the state is 17 or 18 in., the heaviest, about 20 in., occurring in the Red river valley, and the lightest, about 14 in., in the extreme W. While the rainfall is always below the normal amount for humid regions, by far the greater part of it occurs in the spring and summer, and growing crops receive the full benefit. The precipitation rarely amounts to 2 in. for the entire winter. The snows are therefore very light, and are quickly swept from the prairies by the high winds, so that cattle may graze in the open plains throughout the year. There are, however, during every winter from one to four severe blizzards, which inflict great damage upon unprotected flocks and herds.

Soils.—As the Red river valley is the bed of the extinct Lake Agassiz, its soil is composed of the fine detritus and silty deposits carried into the lake by its tributaries. Over the whole basin this deposit, to a depth of 1 or 2 ft., is coloured black by decayed vegetation, and constitutes one of the most fertile tracts on the continent. Being remarkably free from trees, rocks and streams, the soil can be turned in furrows that run perfectly straight for miles, and favours the development of “bonanza farms,” where thousands of acres are cultivated in a single field. The soils W. of the valley consist of glacial drift, and are well suited to the growing of grain. The drift becomes thinner toward the W., and finally disappears in the semi-arid regions of the Missouri river valley. In this region the soils of sand and clay are much finer than the drift, and are very productive where the water-supply is sufficient.

Irrigation.—Irrigation is confined to the western half of the state, and more especially to the north-west, being employed chiefly in the drainage basin of the Missouri river. The bed of the river is too far below the surrounding country to permit the use of its waters for irrigation purposes by the usual gravity methods. The ordinary process before 1906 was to dam small streams and “coulees” (deep gulches in which water flows intermittently) and flood the surrounding country. The total irrigated area in 1902 was 10,384 acres. The so-called Reclamation Act passed by Congress in 1902 provided for the construction of a system of irrigation works in this and other states by the Federal government. In 1908 the Federal Reclamation Service had five projects in North Dakota. The Buford-Trenton, Williston and Nesson projects are situated in Williams county, on the left bank of the Missouri river. The abundant lignite coal in the region was to operate pumps for raising water from the river into canals crossing the valley. The Washburn project was to irrigate 5000 acres in McLean county with water pumped from the Missouri river. It was estimated that the fourth project, the lower Yellowstone, on the western bank of the river of that name, would furnish water for 66,000 acres of land, of which 20,000 lie in Dawson county, North Dakota, and the rest in Montana. The fifth project, the Bowman, was to irrigate 10,000 acres in North Dakota and the north-western part of South Dakota by storing the waters of the North Fork of Grand river. Water for irrigation purposes is often derived

from artesian wells, which are very numerous in the S. and E., particularly in the James river valley.

Agriculture.—Agriculture is by far the most important industry of the state, and, owing to climatic conditions, it is rigidly limited to a few staple crops. The growing season is too short for maize or Indian corn, which constituted only 1·2% of the acreage of cereals in 1905. No winter wheat can be grown, and the climate is too harsh for the larger fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, plums and grapes; but such hardy small fruits as currants, gooseberries, raspberries, blackberries and strawberries may be grown in abundance.

The total farm acreage in 1890 was 7,660,333; in 1900, 15,542,640. The value of the farm property in the same decade rose from $100,745,779 to $255,266,751, and the value of farm products from 1889 to 1899 from $21,264,938 to $64,252,494.

The average size of the farms (excluding farms under 3 acres with products valued at less than $500) was 277·4 acres in 1890 and 343·8 acres in 1900. With regard to tenure, 74·7% of the farms were operated by their owners, 15·2% by part owners and 7·2% by share tenants. Hay and grain formed the principal source of income of 88·4% of the farms, live-stock of 6·7% and dairy produce of 2·6%. Wheat is the state’s most important product. In the acreage of this cereal in 1909 (according to the Year-book of the U.S. Department of Agriculture), North Dakota ranked first, and in the crop second among the states of the Union, its total yield being 90,762,000 bushels, valued at $83,501,000. Next in importance to wheat in 1909 was flaxseed, amounting to 14,229,000 bushels, valued at $22,340,000. In the production of this commodity the state ranked first, and produced about 55% of the entire crop of the United States. The flax is cultivated for the seed, and only slightly for the fibre. Other important crops are oats ($16,368,000 in 1906) barley ($8,913,000), hay, potatoes, rye and Indian corn. The value of the various classes of live-stock on the 1st of January 1910 was as follows: horses, $81,168,000; mules, $1,040,000; cattle, $21,001,000; sheep, $2,484,000; swine, $2,266,000. Very little attention is paid to fruit and vegetable growing.

Minerals.—With the exception of lignite, which underlies a large portion of the western half of the state, North Dakota has few mineral deposits of commercial value. Sandstone occurs in large quantities, and W. of the Red river valley granite and gneiss are found, but these materials are not quarried. The coal is all in the form of brown lignite and is not very valuable as a fuel, as it soon crumbles into a fine powder on being exposed to air. The total area of the coal beds is estimated at 35,000 sq. m. A law enacted in 1896 required the use of lignite in all state buildings and institutions. Mining is carried on along the Northern Pacific railway W. of the Missouri river, in the Mouse river valley along the line of the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie railway, and at a few places in the same region along the line of the Great Northern railway. Good clays for the manufacture of tile and brick are found at numerous places. The total value of the mineral products (except stone) in 1909 was $738,818, of which $522,116 was the value of coal and $206,222 of clay products.

Manufactures.—Manufacturing in North Dakota is of small importance, being largely confined, with the exception of flour and grist milling, to the supply of local needs. Under the factory system there were 337 establishments in 1900 and 507 in 1905; the capital invested in 1900 was $3,511,968 and in 1905 $5,703,837; and the value of products was $6,259,840 in 1900 and $10,217,914 (or 63·2% more) in 1905. The products of the flour and grist mills increased in value from $4,134,023 in 1900 to $6,463,228 in 1905, and in this last year constituted in value 63·3% of the total factory products of the state. Printing and publishing was next in importance, with products valued at $719,950 in 1900 and at $1,110,439 in 1905. Butter, cheese and condensed milk manufactured were valued at $122,128 in 1900 and at $562,481 in 1905. The chief manufacturing centres are Fargo and Grand Forks.

Transportation.—The total railway mileage within the state on the 31st of December 1908 was 4135·67 m. The main line of the Northern Pacific, from St Paul to Portland, Oregon, enters the state at Fargo and runs almost due W. throughout its length for about 380 m. Parallel with this road, but farther to the N., is the main line of the Great Northern system, running from St Paul to Seattle. The length of its route within the state, from Wahpeton to Buford via Larimore, is about 460 m. Both of these systems have numerous branch lines. The main line of the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie enters the S.E. corner of the state at Fairmount and ends in the N.W. at Portal, on the international boundary, having in 1909 a length within the state of 361 m. Among its many branches are the “Wheat Line,” running from Kenmare, North Dakota, to Thief River Falls, Minnesota, and having a length of 251 m. in the state; and the “Missouri River Line,” penetrating the southern and central portions of the state from Hankinson to Garrison, with a length of 282 m. In 1909 the Northern Pacific was building about 140 m. of new track. The Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railway, running E. and W. through South Dakota, sends four short branches into the southern part of North Dakota. The Chicago & North-Western also sends a short branch line northward into the state, forming a junction with other lines at Oakes. The Red river is navigable as far S. as Belmont, and the Missouri river is navigable throughout its course within the state, although it requires a skilful pilot.