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.—Physical Features and Climate:—R. S. Tarr, Physical Geography of New York State (New York, 1902), with a chapter on climate by E. T. Turner; Reports of the New York Geological Survey from 1842 to 1854 (Albany); Reports of the Topographical Survey of the Adirondack Region of New York (Albany, 1873–1880); Reports of the New York Meteorological Bureau (1889 sqq.); and publications of the United States Weather Bureau. Fauna and Flora: Reports of the Forest, Fish and Game Commissioner (Albany, 1902 sqq.); Ralph Hoffmann, Guide to the Birds of New England and Eastern New York (Boston, 1904); and Bulletins of the New York State Museum (Albany, 1888 sqq.). Government: W. C. Morey, The Government of New York: Its History and Administration (New York, 1902) after tracing briefly the development of the governmental system describes its structure and operation. C. Z. Lincoln, The Constitutional History of New York (5 vols., Rochester, 1906) is an elaborate and able study of the growth of the constitution. See also J. A. Fairlie, The Centralization of Administration in New York State (New York, 1898); Annual Reports of the State Board of Charities (Albany, 1867 sqq.); Annual Reports of the State Education Department (Albany, 1904 sqq.); and Sidney Sherwood, History of Higher Education in the State of New York (Washington, 1900), Circular of Information No. 3 of the United States Bureau of Education. History: E. H. Roberts, New York: The Planting and Growth of the Empire State (2 vols., Boston, 1896) is a popular but rather superficial treatment of the entire period. The early historical documents of the state were collected by E. B. O’Callaghan in his Documentary History of the State of New York (4 vols., Albany, 1849–1851); and more completely in Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New York procured by J. R. Brodhead (15 vols., vols. i.-xi. edited by E. B. O’Callaghan and xii.-xv. by B. Fernow; Albany, 1853–1883). O’Callaghan edited A Calendar of Historical Manuscripts in the Office of the Secretary of State of New York (2 vols., Albany, 1865–1866). E. B. O’Callaghan, History of New Netherland (2 vols., New York, 1846), and J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of New York (2 vols., New York, 1853 and 1871) are the standard works on the early history. Mrs Martha J. Lamb’s History of the City of New York (2 vols., New York, 1877) and Mrs Schuyler Van Rensselaer’s History of the City of New York in the Seventeenth Century (2 vols., New York, 1909) include the history of the province. William Smith’s History of the Late Province of New York, from its Discovery to 1762 (1st part, 1757, reprinted in the 1st series of the New York Historical Society Collections, 2 vols., 1829–1830) is still the chief authority for the period from the English Revolution of 1688 to the eve of the War of Independence. For the same period, however, consult C. W. Spencer, Phases of Royal Government in New York, 1691–1719 (Columbus, 1905). John Fiske, The Dutch and Quaker Colonies in America (2 vols., Boston, 1900) is admirable in its generalizations but unreliable in its details. G. W. Schuyler, Colonial New York: Philip Schuyler and his Family (2 vols., New York, 1885) is a family history, but especially valuable in the study of Indian affairs and the intermarriages of the landed families. A. C. Flick’s Loyalism in New York during the American Revolution (New York, 1901) and H. P. Johnston’s Campaign of 1776 around New York and Brooklyn (Brooklyn, 1878) are thorough studies. For the military history of the War of Independence see also Justin Winsor’s Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. vi. (Boston, 1888). For strictly political history see a series of articles by Carl Becker in the American Historical Review, vols. vi., vii. and ix., and the Political Science Quarterly, vol. xviii., J. D. Hammond’s History of Political Parties in the State of New York (2 vols., Albany, 1842) and D. S. Alexander’s Political History of the State of New York (3 vols., New York, 1906–1909). See also E. P. Cheney, The Anti-Rent Agitation in the State of New York (Philadelphia, 1887); Charles McCarthy, “The Anti-Masonic Party” in vol. i. pp. 365-574 of the Annual Report for 1902 of the American Historical Association; N. E. Whitford, History of the Canal System of the State of New York (Albany, 1906).

NEW YORK (CITY), the largest city of New York state, U.S.A., situated at the junction of the Hudson river, here called the North river, with the narrow East river (actually a strait connecting Long Island Sound with the Upper Bay), and between Long Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean. It is composed of five boroughs: the Borough of the Bronx on the south-easternmost part of the mainland of New York state; the Borough of Manhattan on Manhattan Island (including also other small islands ) immediately S. and S.W. of the Bronx, and bounded on the W. by the North river, on the E. by the East river, and on the S. by New York Bay; the Borough of Richmond (, q.v.), the southernmost and westernmost part of the city; and on the western end of Long Island, the Borough of (q.v.), and, N. of it, the Borough of Queens. The city hall, in the southern part of Manhattan Island, is in lat. 40° 42′ 43″ N. and long. 74° 0′ 3″ W. The greatest width of the city E. and W. is 16 m., and the greatest length N. and S. is 32 m.; its area is about 326·97 sq. m. (285·72 sq. m. more than in 1890), of which Manhattan Borough constitutes nearly 21·93 sq. m., the Borough of the Bronx about 41·7 sq. m., the Borough of Queens about 129·5 sq. m., the Borough of Brooklyn 77·6 sq. m., and the Borough of Richmond 55·2 sq. m. The total waterfront of the city is 341·22 m., and much of it, especially on the lower part of Manhattan, is made ground.

New York harbour is one of the most beautiful, largest and best of the world’s great ports. Over the bar (Sandy Hook), about 20 m. S. of the S. end of Manhattan Island, is the “Main Ship Bayside-Gedney channel,” 1000 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep; By 1909 the Federal government had completed 7 m. of the Ambrose channel farther to the E. and 40 ft. deep, and 950–1600 ft. wide (2200 ft. is the projected width). A third