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 Open fireplaces are sufficient to warm the houses, and free exercise in the open air is attainable at all seasons. The average mean temperature at St John’s is 41·2° F., the maximum being 83° and the minimum 7°; the average height of the barometer is 29·37 in. The average rainfall is 58·30 in. Winter sets in, as a rule, in the beginning of December and lasts until the middle of April. Generally the snow lies during this period, and the frost rarely penetrates the ground to a greater depth than a few inches. Spring is sometimes late in arriving, but once vegetation sets in it advances with marvellous rapidity. The autumn is usually very fine, and is often prolonged till November. There is nothing in the climate to interfere with agriculture. Tornadoes are unknown, and thunderstorms are very rare. Fogs, of which so much is said in connexion with the country, are confined to the shores and bays of the south-eastern and southern coasts.

Fauna.—Among the well-known wild animals indigenous to the country the caribou or reindeer hold a conspicuous place. They migrate regularly between the south-eastern and north-western portions of the island. The winter months are passed In the south, where “browse” is plentiful, and the snow is not too deep to prevent them from reaching the lichens on the lower grounds. In March they begin their spring migration to the barrens and mountains of the north-west. In May or June they bring forth their young. As soon as the frosts of October begin to nip the vegetation they turn south. September and October are the best months for stalking. In addition to the caribou, the wolf and black bear are found in the interior; the fox (black, silver, grey and red), beaver, otter, arctic hare, North-American hare, weasel, bat, rat, mouse and musquash or musk-rat are numerous. The famous Newfoundland dog is still to be met with, but good specimens are rare, and he appears to thrive better elsewhere. The common dogs are a degenerate mongrel race. It is estimated that there are three hundred species of birds in the island, most of them being migratory. Among them may be enumerated the eagle, hawk, owl, woodpecker, swallow, kingfisher, six species of fly-catchers and the same number of thrushes, warblers and swallows in great variety, finches, ravens, jays. The ptarmigan or willow grouse is very abundant, and is the finest gamebird in the island. The rock ptarmigan is found in the highest and barest mountain ridges. The American golden plover, various species of sandpipers and curlews, the brent goose, ducks, petrels, gulls and the great northern diver are met with everywhere. The great auk, now extinct, was once found in myriads around the island. The little auk, guillemot and the razor-billed auk are abundant. No venomous reptiles occur. Frogs have been introduced and thrive well. Of molluscous animals the common squid, a cephalopod about 6 or 7 in. in length, visits the coasts in immense shoals in August and September, and supplies a valuable bait. A gigantic species of cephalopod was discovered in 1873, which excited much interest among naturalists: the body varies from 7 to 15 ft. in length, with a circumference of 5 or 6 ft.; from the head ten arms radiate, the two longest (tentacles) being from 24 to 40 ft. in length, and covered with suckers at their extremities; the other eight arms vary from 6 to 11 ft., and on one side are entirely covered with suckers. Professor Verrill, of Yale College, distinguished two species—one he named Architeuthis Harveyi, after the discoverer, and the other Architeuthis monachus.

Flora.—The pine, spruce, birch, juniper and larch of the forests of the interior furnish ample materials for a large timber trade as well as for shipbuilding purposes. The white pine grows to the height of 70 or 80 ft. in some places, and is 3 or 4 ft. in diameter. There is an abundance of wood suitable for making pulp for paper; and in 1906–1907 a London company, with Lord Northcliffe (of the Daily Mail) at its head, acquired large tracts for this purpose, and operations were begun in 1910. The mountain ash, balsam poplar and aspen thrive well. Evergreens are in great variety. The berry-bearing plants cover large areas of the island. The maidenhair or capillaire yields a saccharine matter which is lusciously sweet. Flowering plants and ferns are in vast varieties, and wild grasses and clover grow luxuriantly. Garden vegetables of all kinds, and strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, currants, &c., thrive well.

Population.—By the earliest computation made in 1654 the number of permanent inhabitants in the island was 1750. Twenty-six years later the resident population was stated to be 2280; in 1763, 7000; in 1804, 20,000. In 1832 the population had risen to 60,000; in 1836 to 75,094; in 1857, 124,288; and in 1874, 161,374. By the census of 1901 the total population of Newfoundland was 217,037, that of Labrador being 3947. The capital, St John’s, which contained a population of 15,000 in 1835, had in 1901 29,594 souls. The rate of increase for the island for the ten years ending in 1901 was 9·37% as compared with the rate of increase 1874–1884, which was 22·30%. Certain districts such as Carbonear, Harbour Grace and Ferryland, as well as Labrador, showed a steady decline, the largest increase being in St George’s district and on the west coast, where it is not less than 40%.

Of the various religious denominations the strength in 1901 was as follows: Roman Catholics, 75,989; Church of England, 73,008; Methodists, 61,388; Presbyterians, 1168; Congregationalists, 954; Salvationists, 6594; Moravians, Baptists and others, 1554. The system of public education is denominational, each religious body receiving grants from the revenue according to numerical strength. The total sum allotted to education in 1904–1905 was $196,192. The aggregate number of pupils under fifteen attending the 783 elementary schools and academies in the island was 35,204. It is estimated that 25% of the population, chiefly the older folk, are illiterate.

Fisheries.—These constitute the great staple industry of the island. On the export of its products the trade of the colony still mainly depends. The most important fish in these waters, commercially, is the cod, which is here more abundant than anywhere else in the world. Although subject to considerable fluctuation the average annual export of dried cod-fish over a term of years is about 1,200,000 quintals. The value of the export varies between five and six million dollars, according to the market price of the dried fish. The cod are taken on the shores of the island, along the Labrador coast and on “the Banks.” These Banks, which have played such an important part in the history of the colony, and are the chief source of its wealth, stretch for about 300 m. in a south-east direction towards the centre of the North Atlantic, and probably at one time formed a part of the North American continent. The depths range from 15 to 80 or 90 fathoms. The deposits consist of sand and gravel composed of ancient rocks, and fragments of quartz, mica, hornblende, felspars and magnetite; along with these are many calcareous fragments of echinoderms, polyzoa and many foraminifera. In the deeper parts there is sometimes a fine mud containing the above-mentioned minerals and calcareous fragments, and in addition numerous frustules of diatoms. The Banks are swept by the cold Labrador current, and icebergs are frequently stranded upon them. The Gulf Stream passes over their southern portions. These two currents bear along many species of pelagic algae and animals, which supply abundant food to the myriads of echinoderms, molluscs, annelids, coelenterates and other invertebrates which live at all depths on the Banks. These invertebrates in turn supply food to the cod and other fishes which are sought for by the fishermen. Sea birds frequent the Banks in great numbers; and, as diving birds are not met with at any great distance from them, the presence of these in the sea gives seamen an indication of the shallower water.

The total annual catch of cod in Newfoundland waters has been estimated at about 2,500,000 quintals (a quintal being one-twentieth of a ton), with a value of about £1,400,000 sterling. The cod fishery forms four-fifths of the entire industry, in spite of the increase in the herring and lobster catch. No increase in the quantities taken is to be noted, but the market value of dried cod fish is generally enhanced. In 1885 an export of 1,284,710 quintals was only worth $4,061,600. In 1905 1,196,814 quintals were valued at $6,108,614. To this may be added the value of the fish consumed by the people of the colony, estimated at $450,000. According to the census of 1901 there were 41,231 males and 21,443 females engaged in the catching and curing of fish.

The figures have greatly varied in past years: as for instance in 1857, 31% of the total population were engaged in catching and curing fish: in 1869, 25·4%, in 1884, 30·6%, and in 1901, 28·4%. Small voyages and low prices have tended to limit fishery operations; and the opening up of other industries has diverted labour from the fisheries. The total number of vessels engaged is about 1550, with a tonnage of 54,500; over 11,000 fishing rooms are in actual use. The use of traps has followed the decrease in number of nets and seines, but the continued increase of fishing rooms shows that there is no falling off in the Newfoundland cod fishery, which has now been prosecuted for fully four centuries. Notwithstanding the enormous drafts every year, to all appearance the cod are as abundant as ever. They begin to appear on the coasts of the island about the first of June, at which time they move from the deep waters of the coast to the shallower and warmer waters near the shore, for spawning purposes. Their approach is heralded by the caplin, a beautiful little fish about 7 in. in length, vast shoals of which arrive, filling every bay and harbour. The cod follow in their wake, feasting greedily upon the caplin, which supply the best bait. In six weeks the caplin disappear, and their place is taken by the squid about the 1st of August. These also supply a valuable bait, and are followed by the herring, which continue till the middle or end of