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 inventors; especially by Baudouin and jouannin, patented in the United Kingdom in 1861. In this machine separate threads or cords running longitudinally for each division of the mesh are employed (fig. 4). It will be observed that the alternate threads 𝑎 and 𝑏 are differently disposed—the 𝑎 series being drawn into simple loops over and through which the threads of the 𝑏 series have to pass.

On the machine the 𝑎 series of threads are arranged vertically, while the 𝑏 series are placed horizontally in thin lenticular spools. Over the horizontal 𝑏 series is a range of hooks equal in number with the threads, and set so that they seize the 𝑏 threads, raise them, and give them a double twist, thus forming a row of open loops. The loops are then depressed, and, seizing the vertical 𝑎 threads, draw them crotchet-like through the 𝑏 loops into loops sufficiently long and open to pass right over the spools containing the 𝑏 threads (fig. 2), after which it only remains to tighten the threads and the mesh is complete.

Wire-netting, which is in extensive demand for garden use, poultry coops, and numerous like purposes, is also a twisted structure made principally by machine power. The industry was mainly founded by Charles Barnard in 1844, the first netting being made by hand on wooden rollers.

The first machine appeared in 1855, and, since that time many devices, generally of extremely complex construction, have come into use. The wire chiefly used is common annealed Bessemer or mild steel (see B. Smith, Wire, Its Manufacture and Uses, New York, 1891).

NETHERLANDS. The geographical features of the countries formerly known collectively as the Netherlands or Low Countries are dealt with under the modern English names of and. Here we are concerned only with their earlier history, which is put for convenience under this heading in order to separate the account of the period when they formed practically a single area for historical purposes from that of the time when Holland and Belgium became distinct administrative units.

The sources of our knowledge of the country down to the 8th century are Caesar’s De Bello Gallico, iv., the history of Velleius Paterculus, ii. 105, the works of Tacitus, the Historia Francorum (i.-iii.) of Gregory of Tours, the Fredegar’s Chronica (for the last two of which see D. Bouquet’s Recueil de historiens des Gaules et de la France, 1738–1876). The Netherlands first became known to the Romans through the campaigns of Julius Caesar. He found the country peopled partly by tribes of Gallo-Celtic, partly by tribes of Germanic stock, the river Rhine forming roughly the line of demarcation between the races. Several of the tribes along the borderland, however, were undoubtedly of mixed blood. The Gallo-Celtic tribes bore the general appellation of Belgae, and among these the Nervii, inhabiting the district between the Scheldt and the Sambre were at the date of Caesar’s invasion, 57, the most warlike and important. To the north of the Meuse, and more especially in the low-lying ground enclosed between the Waal and the Rhine (insula Batavorum) lived the Batavi, a clan of the great Germanic tribe, the Chatti. Beyond these were found the (q.v.), a people of German origin, who gave their name to the territory between the Rhine and the Ems. Of the other tribes the best known are the Caninefates, Chauci, Usipetes, Sicambri, Eburones, Menapii, Morini and Aduatici.

Julius Caesar, after a severe struggle with the Nervii and their confederates, was successful in bringing the Belgic tribes into subjection to Rome. Under Augustus, 15, the conquered territory was formed into an imperial province, Gallia Belgica, and the frontier line, the Rhine, was strongly held by a series of fortified camps.

With regard to the region north of the Rhine we first obtain information from the accounts of the campaigns of Nero, Claudius,

Drusus and Tiberius. The Batavians were first brought under Roman rule in the governorship of Drusus, 13. They were not incorporated in the empire, but were ranked as allies, socii or auxilia. Their land became a recruiting ground for the Roman armies, and a base for expeditions across the Rhine. The Batavians served with fidelity and distinction in all parts of the empire, and from the days of Augustus onwards formed a considerable part of the Praetorian guard. The Frisians struggled against Roman over-lordship somewhat longer, and it was not until 47 that they finally submitted to the victorious arms of Domitius Corbulo. The Frisian auxiliaries were likewise regarded as excellent troops.

In the confusion of the disputed succession to the imperial throne after the death of Nero, the Batavians ( 69–70) under the influence of a great leader, known only by his Roman name, Claudius Civilis, rose in revolt. had seen much service in the Roman armies, and was a man of statesmanlike ability. In revenge for his own

imprisonment, and the death of his brother by order of Nero, he took advantage of the disorder in the empire not only to stir up his fellow-countrymen to take up arms for independence, but to persuade a large number of German and Belgic tribes to. join forces with them. A narrative of the revolt is given in detail by Tacitus. At first success attended Civilis and the Romans were driven out of the greater part of the Belgic province. Even the great fortress of Castra Vetera (Xanten) was starved into submission and the garrison massacred. But dissensions arose between the German and Celtic elements of Civilis’s following. The Romans, under an able general, Cerealis, took advantage of this, and Civilis, beaten in fight, retired to the island of the Batavians. But both sides were exhausted, and it was arranged that Cerealis and Civilis should meet on a broken bridge over the Nabalia (Yssel) to discuss terms of peace. At this point the narrative of Tacitus breaks off, but it would appear that easy conditions were offered, for the Batavians returned to their position of socii, and were henceforth faithful in their steady allegiance to Rome. The insula Batavorum, lined with forts, became for a long period the bulwark of the empire against the inroads of the Germans from the north.

Of this period scarcely any record remains, but when at the end of the 3rd century the (q.v.) began to swarm over the Rhine into the Roman lands, the names of the old tribes had disappeared. The peoples within the frontier had been transformed into Romanized provincials; outside, the various tribes had become merged in the

common appellation of Frisians. The branch of the Franks—who were a Confederacy, not a people—which gradually overspread Gallia Belgica, bore the name of the Salian Franks. Nominally they were taken under the protection of the empire, in reality they were its masters and defenders. In the days of their great king Hlodwig or Clovis (481–511) they were in possession of the whole of the southern and central Netherlands. The strip of coast from the mouth of the Scheldt to that of the Ems remained, however, in the hands of the free (q.v.), in alliance with whom against the Franks were the (q.v.), who, pressing forward from the east, had occupied a portion of the districts known later as Gelderland, Overyssel and Drente. Saxon was at this period the common title of all the north German tribes; there was but little difference between Frisians and Saxons either in race or language, and they were closely united for some four centuries in common resistance to the encroachments of the Frankish power.

The conversion of Clovis and his rude followers to Christianity tended gradually to civilize the Franks, and to facilitate the fusion which soon took place between them and the Gallo-Roman population. It tended also to accentuate the enmity to the Franks of the heathen Frisians and Saxons. In the south (of the Netherlands) Christianity

was spread by the labours of devoted missionaries, foremost amongst whom were St Amandus, St Bavon and St Eligius, and bishoprics were set up at Cambrai Tournai, Arras Thérouanne and Liége. In the north progress was much slower, and