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 free by the state, and is encouraged by grants of scholarships and prizes. Boys passing out well are sent at government expense to the various universities of northern India to complete their education, and some have lately been sent to Japan. The evil effects of higher education, as taught in the Indian colleges, on the youth of Bengal, &c., has, however, given the Gurkha durbar a distinct shock, and it seems not unlikely that education in Nepal may receive a set-back in consequence. Some of the upper classes speak English fluently, but the bulk of the labouring classes is quite illiterate.

Katmandu is a perfect storehouse of ancient Sanskrit literature, and some of the oldest MSS. in that language as yet known to scholars have been found there. There is also a fair English library. Both are lodged in a good building.

Calendar.—There are three principal eras in use in Nepal. The Samvat of Vikramaditya begins fifty-seven years before the Christian era, the Saka era of Sālivanhn begins seventy-eight years after the Christian era, and the Nepalese Samvat dates from October 880. The Sri-Harsha and Kaligat eras are also sometimes used. Day is considered to begin when the tiles on a house can be counted, or when the hairs on the back of a man’s hand can be discerned against the sky. Sixty bipalas＝1 pala; 60 palas＝1 ghari or 24 minutes; 60 gharis＝1 day of 24 hours.

Health.—All families of good position have at least one baid, or medical man, in constant attendance, and there are also many general practitioners. There is a large central hospital at Katmandu, and some thirteen other smaller hospitals are distributed over the country, with free beds, and provision for outdoor treatment. There is also a small hospital attached to the British Residency. The diseases most prevalent in the country are rheumatism, chronic dyspepsia, skin diseases, syphilis, goitre, smallpox, cholera and leprosy. In the rains a number of cases of mild intermittent fever, diarrhoea, and dysentery are met with. Fever of a severe typhoid type is common in the crowded lanes and dirty villages. Vaccination is being gradually introduced into the country, and the general health of the inhabitants of the principal cities in the valley has greatly improved since the introduction of fresh water, which has been brought in by pipes from mountain springs.

Towns.—There are three large towns in the Nepal valley, Katmandu, the capital, said to contain approximately 50,000 inhabitants, Patan and Bhatgaon about 30,000 each. The houses are from two to four storeys in height, built of brick and tiled. The windows and balconies are of wood, and some are elaborately carved. There are numerous handsome temples in all the towns, the majority of which are pagoda-shaped and built of brick, with roofs of copper, which is sometimes gilt. The streets are narrow, and they, as well as the squares, are all paved with brick or stone. In front of the temples generally stand monoliths surmounted by figures of Garuda, or of the founder, made of brass gilt, or sometimes of black stone. Besides these three large towns, there are at least twenty smaller towns and numerous villages in the valley, all of which possess many temples. Some of these, as for instance those of Pashupati, Bodhnatha and Symbhunatha, are considered of great sanctity. Many thousands of pilgrims come at one festival to worship at Pashupati, and it is there that the dying are brought to be immersed in the Bagmati, and the dead are burned on its banks.

Agriculture.—While the Gurkhalis are occupied in military affairs, the agriculture of the valley is carried on by the Newars. The soil is varied in character, from light micaceous sand to dense ferruginous clay. The whole valley is cultivated and irrigated where practicable, and the slopes of the hills are carefully terraced, so that there is little grazing ground, and few sheep or cattle are kept There are some milch cows and buffaloes, which are either stall-fed or grazed in the jungles at the foot of the hills. Animals for consumption and sacrifice are all imported, and are consumed as fast as they are brought in. In the cold season the Bhutias bring large flocks of sheep and goats laden with bags of borax, salt and saltpetre. These are sold for consumption, except a few that are retained to carry back the bags. These droves are generally accompanied by ponies and some of the large Tibetan dogs; the latter are powerful, fierce, shaggy animals, about the size of a small Newfoundland dog. Poultry are kept and used by the Newars, especially ducks, the eggs of which are in great demand even among the orthodox Hindus. The crops grown in the valley consist of rice, both the transplanted and the dry-sown or ghaiya varieties, wheat, pulse, murwah, maize, buckwheat, chillies, radishes, mustard, garlic, onions, ginger, turmeric, sugar-cane, potatoes, ground nuts, many species of cucumbers and pumpkins, &c. Nothing but articles of food are allowed to be grown in the valley; hence its capabilities for producing tea, cotton and tobacco are unknown. All of these, however, are grown in other parts of the country, both in the hills and the tarai. Large cardamoms are extensively grown in the eastern hills, and form an important article of export. The hemp plant (Cannabis indica) grows wild, and is used both for manufacturing purposes and for producing the resinous extract and other intoxicating products which are exported. Plants producing dyes, such as madder or manjit, are grown in some places; and drugs, such as chirata, are collected and exported. The better class of soils yields a return of about Rs. 180 per khait, and the poorest about Rs. 90 per khait. From some of the finer soils as many as

three crops of various sorts are obtained annually. The land-measures in use are different in different parts of the country. Thus, in the eastern tarai a bigha measures 90&#x202f;✕&#x202f;90 yds. English, while in the western tarai it is only 15&#x202f;✕&#x202f;15 yds. In the hills the unit of land measurement is called ropni, which is about twice the size of a western tarai bigha,—and twenty-five ropnis make one khait. This measurement applies only to rice lands. Other land measurements for the valley are as follows: One Nepali bigha is 90 yds.&#x202f;✕&#x202f;90 yds. British. (A British Indian bigha is 40 yds.&#x202f;✕&#x202f;40 yds. and 3 Nepali bighas equal about 5 acres.) Sixteen ropnis equal 1 Nepali bigha.

Land Taxes.—The tarai lands pay from two to nine rupees (British) per Nepali bigha according to quality of land. In the hills taxes are charged on the plough, thus: one plough pays 13 annas; one bullock without plough about 10 annas; one spade 6 annas. These taxes are termed Hal, Patay and Kodaley.

Horticulture.—The Newars are also fond of horticulture. Many European fruits, flowers and vegetables have been introduced and grow freely. The country is famous for its oranges and pineapples. Flowers are grown and sold for religious purposes, and even wild flowers are brought into the market and much used by the Newar women in adorning their hair, as well as for offerings at the shrines. Many wild fruits are collected and sold in the markets. Apples and pears, of English stock, thrive well; apricots and plums are good; peaches and grapes grow freely and are of large size, but they seldom ripen before the rains begin, when they rot.

Trade.—All the trade and manufactures of the country are in the hands of the Newars, and a few Kashmiris and natives of Hindustan. The trade in European goods is chiefly carried on by the latter, whilst the Newars deal in corn, oil, salt, tobacco and articles of domestic manufacture. The trade with India is carried on at numerous marts along the frontier, at each of which a customs station is established, and the taxes are collected by a thikadar or farmer. The Newars also carry on the trade with Tibet, through a colony which has been for many years established at Lhasa, but this trade has been a shrinking item since the opening of the Lhasa-Darjeeling route. There are two principal routes to Tibet. One of these runs north-east from Katmandu to the frontier-station of Kuti or Nilam, crossing the Himalayan range at a height of 14,000 ft.; the other passes out of the valley at the north-west corner, and runs at first upwards along the main branch of the Gandak, crossing the Himalayas, near Kerung, at a height of 9000 ft. All goods on these routes are carried on men’s backs, except the salt, &c., carried in bags by the Bhutia sheep and goats. The principal imports from Hindustan are raw cotton, cotton goods, woollen goods, silks and velvets, hardware, cutlery, beads, jewels, coral, saddlery, shoes, guns, gunpowder, glassware, Vermilion, indigo, lac, tea, betel-nut, spices, paper, sugar, tobacco, oils, sheet copper, goats, cattle, buffaloes; and from Tibet, musk, medicines, yaks’ tails, tea, woollen cloth, blankets, borax, salt, saltpetre, paper-plant, honey, wax, sheep, goats, yaks, ponies, silver, gold. The exports to Hindustan include wax, paper-plant, musk, yaks’ tails, medicines, cardamoms, borax, sulphate of copper, brass pots, iron pots, ponies, elephants, hawks, hides and horns (buffalo), rice, ghee, oil seeds, red chillies, madder, cobalt, potatoes, oranges; and to Tibet, broad cloth, raw cotton, cotton goods, tobacco, sugar, opium, coral, jewels, pearls, spices, betel-nut, copper pots, iron pots and hardware. The Nepalese are utterly regardless of statistics, but recent estimates value the exports and imports to and from the British provinces at 3 million sterling annually. Duties are levied on exports and imports. which will be noticed under the head of revenue.

Manufactures.—The Newars are skilful workmen. Their bricks are excellent, and so also is their pottery, for which certain towns are famous, such as Themi and Noakote. As carpenters they excel, though the use of the large saw is still unknown, and planks are cut with chisel and mallet. Some of the wood carvings on the temples and large houses are most artistic in design and bold in execution, though unfortunately they are sometimes of a most obscene character. The manufactures are few, consisting chiefly of coarse cotton cloths, paper made of the inner bark of the paper-plants (Daphne), bells, brass and iron utensils, weapons, and ornaments of gold and silver.

Coinage.—At one time Nepal supplied Tibet with its silver coinage, but this was abandoned on account of the adulterations introduced by the Nepalese. The ancient coins, specimens of which are still to be met with, were made by hand. The modern coinage is struck by machinery, a regular mint having been established by Sir Jung Bahadur at Katmandu, and since improved by his successors.

Government.—The Nepalese have relations with China, and occasionally send an embassy with presents to Peking. The British too have considerable influence with the government in regard to their foreign relations, and a British resident is stationed at Katmandu. But in all matters of domestic policy the Nepalese brook no interference, and they are most jealous of anything that has a tendency to encroach on their independence. Theoretically the government of Nepal is a pure despotism, and the maharajah is paramount. Practically, all