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 of the Great Plains. Arbor Day (the 10th of April) was instituted by the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture in 1872 at the instance of Sterling Morton, later secretary of agriculture of the United States (see ). It has been yearly observed by the public schools of the state, and no state has done more than Nebraska for the forestation of its waste and prairie lands. In such a purely agricultural state a large wooded area is not desired. Plums, grapes and the dwarf “sand-cherry” (Prunus demissa) of the sand-hills are prominent among many wild fruits. The flora is decidedly rich in species as compared with other states, but less so in the number of individuals. Grasses are perhaps the most noteworthy vegetable forms. Nebraska claims a greater variety of native hay and forage species than grow in any other state of the Union. No less than 200 grasses, at least 154 being wild or commonly cultivated, had been listed in 1904. Of the total 200 species 150 (130 indigenous) are valuable for forage, 34 (20 indigenous) are classed economically as weeds, 10 are non-indigenous cereals and 6 are ornamental. The short buffalo-grass was originally everywhere abundant, but it had practically disappeared by 1890 from the eastern half of the state, and since then has steadily become more restricted in habitat. The native prairie grasses have been in considerable part displaced by grasses introduced from more humid regions. Weeds are very numerous (about 125); and some, notably the sand-bur (Solanum rostratum) , cockle-bur, and tumble-weeds among indigenous, and the Russian thistle (Salsola tragus) and purslane among non-indigenous species, are agricultural pests. Nothing can surpass in beauty the rank grasses and bright flowers that grow on the lowlands and rolling uplands of a virgin prairie—now hardly to be found in the state. The common sunflower (the most conspicuous weed of the state) and allied flowers, which spring up in myriads even in the midst of unbroken prairie wherever this is disturbed, line the roads with yellow bands from horizon to horizon, enclose the broken fields and choke waste places.

Fauna.—The fauna of the state is not known with the same thoroughness and detail as the flora, but it too is varied. This is notably true of birds and of insects. Of the latter there are probably 12,000 to 15,000 species, including 140 butterflies, at least 180 grasshoppers, several hundred bees, &c. The so-called “grass hoppers,” true locusts, have done great damage at times in Nebraska. About a third of all the species known in the United States are found within the state or close to its borders, and of these, 9 or 10 are so common that their increase under conditions favourable to their development may be a danger. Such conditions are found in dry years, unfavourable to their chief parasitic enemies, favourable to their own breeding, and the cause of their migrations. There were locust plagues in 1874, 1876 and 1877. Fungus parasites have been used with some, but on the whole rather slight, success, and mechanical appliances with perhaps greater success, in combating these pests. Birds are more effective. As in the case of plants, western, eastern, northern and southern avian species meet in Nebraska. In 1905 some 415 to 420 species had been found within its borders, and more than half of these were known to nest in the state; 120 had been counted in the winter. The lakes of the sand-hills are the breeding-place—less so as settlement increases—of myriads of water-fowl. Before the advent of the white man Nebraska was full of wild mammals, the buffalo, elk, black and white tailed deer, antelope, bears, timber wolves, panthers (pumas), lynx, otter and mink being common. Almost all that remain are black bears, foxes, coyotes (prairie wolves), mink, musk-rats, raccoons and prairie dogs (or gophers). Antelope were not uncommon in the west and northwest until after 1890. The coyote is still so common even in the east as to be a nuisance to the farmer; in 1907 a bounty law was in force which provided for the payment of a state bounty of $5, on every grey wolf, $1·25 on every coyote and $1 on every lynx (wild cat). A few rodents have increased in numbers; the prairie dog especially is a pest in the alfalfa fields of the arid lands as are pocket-gophers at places in the east).

Climate.—The climate of Nebraska is typically inland or continental; i.e. it is characterized by “winters of considerable severity, summers of unusual warmth, rainfall in limited quantities, marked and sudden changes of temperature, large seasonal and daily temperature ranges, and dry, salubrious atmosphere, with a small percentage of cloudiness, and a large percentage of sunshine.” The average wind velocity for the High Plains of Nebraska and adjoining states is about 10 to 12 m.; 25 m. is not uncommon; and a velocity of 40 m. and over is recorded a half-dozen or more times every year. In spring velocities of 15 to 20 m. are common. The average velocity of winds for the entire state for 11 years preceding 1906 was 9·8 m. per hour. The prevailing directions are those common to a large part of the western Mississippi valley. The prevailing wind of the year is N.W.; but in the spring, the summer and much of the autumn its predominance is greatly reduced or overcome by S. and S.W. winds blowing from the Gulf of Mexico (but deflected by the rotation of the earth). Sometimes these winds blow in the winter—causing the curious phenomenon of melting snows on the coldest days of the year; in the summer in seasons of drought, especially in the western part of the state, this wind from the Gulf sometimes reaches Nebraska

wrung dry of its moisture and so hot that in a day or two it shrivels and ruins the crops in its path. Such calamities are, however, uncommon, and the belief that Nebraska is often visited by tornadoes is erroneous.

The normal mean-annual temperature of the state is about 48·7° F, and the normals for the six approximately equal weather sections into which the state is divided by the National Weather Service are respectively about 48°, 50·5°, 48·6°, 50·4°, 47·9° and 46·6° F. This illustrates the extraordinary homogeneity of climatic conditions. But there is a considerable difference in the averages for different months—the normal means of January and July through 30 years being 20·9° and 74·6° F., and the means of spring, summer, autumn and winter respectively about 48°, 72 °, 53° and 23·5° F. Thus there is for any particular locality a wide range in absolute temperature through the year, which averages for the state probably about 120° (1897–1905). Similarly, the range is large through the day, especially in the higher altitudes, where the nights are almost invariably cool and refreshing after even the hottest day. The number of continuous days with a mean temperature above 50° F., averages probably about 175 for the state. The actual growing-season between frosts is, however, not so great. Temperature is of course lower as one moves to the N. and N.W., the initial planting and harvesting of each crop progressing wave-like across the state in from one to two weeks. Especially in the W. and N.W. there are in some winters occasional anti-cyclonic or high-area storms known as blizzards—wind—storms preceded or accompanied by snow-fall—which are very severe. They continue from one to three days, and are habitually followed by very low temperature. They are the cause of great loss to the cattle owners. Such storms are, however, rare. In the S.E. portion of the state the winters are characteristically mild and open. Temperatures below zero are rare for any locality; and the same may be said of temperatures above 95° in summer.

The normal mean-annual precipitation for the whole state is about 23·84 in. in rain and melted snow, the actual yearly fall varying through 30 years between 13·30 and 31·65 in. Such rainfall might seem inadequate for an agricultural country: moreover, the eastern half of the state is more favoured than the western, which belongs, indeed, to the semi-arid Great Plains on which the Reclamation Service of the United States Government is active. But aridity is a matter of the efficiency rather than of the mere quantity of rainfall, and in this regard, Nebraska is very fortunately situated. Rain is most plenteous in the critical months of the year. Seven-tenths of all precipitation falls in the growing season, giving the state, especially in the east, a greater amount at this time than many other states whose aggregate yearly rainfall is greater; so that Nebraska has an abundance for the safest cultivation. Moreover, nine-tenths of the rainfall is absorbed by the loess and sandy soils, only one-tenth being “run-off.” It is a widely spread but unfounded belief in Nebraska that the rainfall has been increasing since the settlement of the state. That its storage has very greatly increased as cultivation has been extended (the prairie sod sheds water like a roof) is true; moreover, the spread of scientific principles of farming has increased the advantage derived from the ground-water stored. Efficient rainfall has thus been greatly increased. Intermittent streamlets may well become perennial, and many are probably, as reported, becoming so. It is even conceivable that the settlement of the state may affect the seasonal distribution of precipitation; and that an advantageous alteration has in fact resulted is believed by many.

The climate of Nebraska is exceptionally healthy. Its beneficial qualities must be attributed to the state’s inland situation, its dry and pure air, constant winds and splendid drainage, to which its even slope and peculiar soil alike contribute. In some people, however, nervousness is induced; and the winds, in particular, often have this effect. Autumn is perhaps the finest season; the fields are green into the winter, the air is pure and fresh, though dry and warm, and the long season is delightfully mild and beautiful. The arid portion, as compared with the eastern portion, of the state has alike the advantage sand disadvantages of a climate more sharply characterized.

Soil.—Geologically Nebraska is one of the most typical agricultural states of the Union; although in the present distribution of industrial interests agriculture is by no means so predominant as in some southern states. The basis of the soils is sands (coarse, fine or silt); clay beds, though economically important, are in quantity relatively scant. In the eastern half silt, and in the western fine sand, form the bulk of the soil. There are five well-defined soil regions corresponding to the geologic-topographic divisions already indicated of drift loess, sand-hills, foot-hills and Bad Lands. The loess is a “salt, fine sandy loam with a large percentage of sand or silt, and considerable calcareous matter, and usually a small amount of clay.” It contains considerable humic matter, discolouring rapidly in the air (when exposed it is characteristically a bright buff). It is of extraordinary fertility, and its great depth (in Lincoln and Dawson counties bluffs 200 ft. thick are found) is a guarantee of almost inexhaustible resources. The glacial drift is also a useful deposit, coarse ingredients in it being of small amount (rare boulders, and some gravel). The superficial soil over most of the state, and everywhere in the E. except rarely where the loess or drift is bare, is a rich, black vegetable mould, 1 to 5 ft. thick on the uplands. The sand-hills are not inherently infertile; the soil never bakes, is always receptive of moisture,