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 3,572,329 affirmative votes and only 2569 negatives. In this vote lay the justification of the acts of the First Consul and the pledge for the greatness of the emperor Napoleon. The republicans in nearly every case voted for him: and it is significant of the curious trend of French thought that the new imperial constitution of the 18th of May 1804 opened with the words: “The government of the Republic is confided to an emperor, who takes the title Emperor of the French.”

Napoleon was now able by degrees to dispense with all republican forms (the last to go was the Republican Calendar which ceased on the 1st of January 1806), and the scene at the Coronation in Notre Dame on the 2nd of December 1804 was frankly imperial in splendour and in the egotism which led Napoleon to wave aside the pope, Pius VII., at the supreme moment and crown himself. It is worthy of note that Josephine then won a triumph over Joseph Bonaparte and his sisters, who had been intriguing to effect a divorce. Napoleon, though he did not bar the door absolutely against such a proceeding, granted her her heart’s desire by secretly going through a religious ceremony on the evening before the coronation. It was performed by Fesch, now a cardinal; but Napoleon could afterwards urge the claim that all the legal formalities had not been complied with; and the motive for the marriage may probably be found in the refusal of the pope to appear at the coronation unless the former civil contract was replaced by the religious rite.

As happened at every stage of Napoleon’s advancement, the states tributary to France underwent changes corresponding to those occurring at Paris. The most important of these was the erection of monarchy in North Italy. The Italian republic (formerly the Cisalpine republic) became the kingdom of Italy.

At first Napoleon desired to endow Joseph, or, on his refusal, Louis, with the crown of the new kingdom. They, however, refused to place themselves out of the line of direct succession in France, as Napoleon required, in case they accepted this new dignity. Finally, he resolved to take the title himself. The obsequious authorities at Milan at once furthered his design by sending an address to him, by requesting the establishment of royalty, and on the 15th of March 1805 by offering the crown to him. On the 26th of May he crowned himself in the cathedral at Milan with the iron crown of the old Lombard kings, amidst surroundings of the utmost splendour. On the 7th of June he issued a decree conferring the dignity of viceroy on Eugene de Beauharnais, his stepson; but everything showed that Napoleon’s will was to be law; and the great powers at once saw that Napoleon’s promise to keep the crowns of France and Italy separate was meaningless. The matter was of international importance; for by the treaty of Lunéville (February 1801) he had bound himself to respect the independence of the two republics of North Italy, the Cisalpine and the Ligurian. The defiance to Austria was emphasized when, on the 4th of June, he promised a deputation from Genoa that he would grant their request (prompted by his agents) of incorporating the Genoese (or Ligurian) republic in the French empire. In the same month he erected the republic of Lucca into a principality for Bacciochi and his consort, Elisa Bonaparte.

These actions proclaimed so unmistakably Napoleon’s intention of making Italy an annexe of France as to convince Francis of Austria and Alexander of Russia that war with him was inevitable. The tsar, as protector of the Germanic System, had already been so annoyed by the seizure of the duc d’Enghien on German territory, and by other high-handed actions against the Hanse cities, as to recall his ambassador from Paris. Napoleon showed his indifference to the opinion of the tsar by ordering the seizure of the British envoy at Hamburg, Sir George Rumbold (24th of October); but set him free on the remonstrance of the king of Prussia, with whom he then desired to remain on friendly terms. Nevertheless, the general trend of his policy was such as powerfully to help on the formation of the Third Coalition against France—a compact which Pitt (who returned to power in May 1804) had found it very difficult to arrange. Disputes with Russia respecting Malta and the British maritime code kept the two states apart for nearly a year; and Austria was too timid to move. But Napoleon’s actions, especially the annexation of Genoa, at last brought the three powers to accord, with the general aim of re-establishing the status quo ante in Germany, Holland, Switzerland and Italy, or, in short, of restoring the balance of power which Napoleon had completely upset.

Military affairs in this period are dealt with under ; but it may be noted here that during the anxious days which Napoleon spent at the camp of Boulogne in the second and third weeks of August 1805, uncertain whether to risk all in an attack on England in case Villeneuve should arrive, or to turn the Grand Army against Austria, the only step which he took to avert a continental war was the despatch of General Duroc to Berlin to offer Hanover to Prussia on consideration of her framing a close alliance with France. It was very unlikely that that peace-loving Court would take up arms against its powerful neighbours on behalf of Napoleon, and his proceedings in the previous months had been so recklessly provocative as to arouse doubts whether he intended to invade England and did not welcome the outbreak of a continental war. But in the case of a man so intensely ambitious, determined and egoistic as Napoleon, a decision on this interesting question is hazardous. Little reliance can be placed on his subsequent statements (as, for instance, to Metternich in 1810) that the huge preparations at Boulogne and the long naval campaign of Villeneuve were a mere ruse whereby to lure the Austrians into a premature declaration of war. It is, however, highly probable that he meant to strike at London if naval affairs went well, but that he was glad to have at hand an alternative which would shroud a. maritime failure under military laurels. If so, he succeeded. His habit was, as he said, faire son thème en deux façons, and he