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 himself in the pamphlets Die erste Generalsynode der evang. Landeskirche Preussens (1847) and Die evangelische Union, ihr Wesen und göttliches Recht (1854). His chief work, however, was Die christliche Lehre der Sünde (2 vols., 1839; 5th ed., 1867; Eng. trans. from 5th ed.), in which he carried scholasticism so far as “to revive the ancient Gnostic theory of the fall of man before all time, a theory which found no favour amongst his theological friends” (Otto Pfleiderer).

MÜLLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797–1840), German scholar, was born at Brieg in Silesia on the 28th of August 1797. He was educated partly in Breslau, partly in Berlin, where his enthusiasm for the study of Greek literature, art and history was fostered by the influence of Böckh. In 1817, after the publication of his first work, Aegineticorum liber, he received an appointment at the Magdaleneum in Breslau, and in 1819 he was made adjunct professor of ancient literature in the university of Göttingen, his subject being the archaeology and history of ancient art. His aim was to form a vivid conception of Greek life as a whole; and his books and lectures marked an epoch in the development of Hellenic studies. Müller’s position at Göttingen being rendered unpleasant by the political troubles which followed the accession of Ernest Augustus (duke of Cumberland) to the throne of Hanover in 1837, he applied for permission to travel; and in 1839 he left Germany. In April of the following year he reached Greece, having spent the winter in Italy. He investigated the remains of ancient Athens, visited many places of interest in Peloponnesus, and finally went to Delphi, where he began excavations. He was attacked by intermittent fever, of which he died at Athens on the 1st of August 1840.

Among his historical works the foremost place belongs to his Geschichten hellenischer Stämme und Städte: Orchomenos und die Minyer (1820), and Die Dorier (1824; Eng. trans. by H. Tufnell and Cornewall Lewis, 1830, including the essay Über die Makedonier, on the settlements, origin and early history of the Macedonians). He introduced a new standard of accuracy in the cartography of ancient Greece. In 1828 he published Die Etrusker, a treatise on Etruscan antiquities. His Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlichen Mythologie (1825; Eng. trans., J. Leitch, 1844), in which he avoided the extreme views of G. F. Creuzer and C. A. Lobeck, prepared the way for the scientific investigation of myths; while the study of ancient art was promoted by his Handbuch der Archäologie der Kunst (1830; Eng. trans., J. Leitch, 1847), and Denkmäler der alten Kunst (1832), which he wrote in association with C. Osterley. In 1840 appeared in England his History of the Literature of Ancient Greece; the original German work from which it had been translated being issued in Germany in 1841 (4th ed. by E. Heitz, 1882). Chapters i.–xxii. were translated by Sir George Cornewall Lewis; chapters xxiii.–xxxvi. by J. W. Donaldson, who carried the work down to the taking of Constantinople by the Turks. It is still one of the best books on the subject. Müller also published an admirable translation of the Eumenides of Aeschylus with introductory essays (1833), and new editions of Varro (1833) and Festus (1839).

MÜLLER, LUCIAN (1836–1898), German scholar, was born at Merseburg in Prussian Saxony on the 17th of March 1836. Having studied at Berlin and Halle, he resided for five years in Holland, where he collected the materials for his Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in den Niederlanden (1869). Unable to obtain a university appointment in Germany, he accepted (1870) the professorship of Latin at the Imperial Historico-Philological Institute in St Petersburg. There he died on the 24th of April 1898. Müller was a disciple of the methods of Bentley and Lachmann. His De re metrica poetarum latinorum (1861; 2nd ed., 1894) represents a landmark in the investigation of the metrical system of the Roman poets (the dramatists excepted), and his Metrik der Griechen und Römer (2nd ed., 1885) is an excellent treatise in a small compass (Eng. trans. by S. B. Platner, Boston, Mass., 1892).

MÜLLER, WILHELM (1794–1827), German lyric poet, was born at Dessau on the 7th of October 1794, the son of a shoemaker. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native town and at the university of Berlin, where he devoted himself to philological and historical studies. In 1813–1814 he took part, as a volunteer, in the national rising against Napoleon. In 1817 he visited Italy, and in 1820 published his impressions in Rom, Römer und Römerinnen. In 1818 he was appointed teacher of classics in the Dessau school, and in 1820 librarian to the ducal library. He died at Dessau on the 30th of September 1827. Müller’s earliest lyrics are contained in a volume of poems, Bundesblüten, by several friends, which was published in 1816. His literary reputation was made by the Gedichte aus den hinterlassenen Papieren eines reisenden Waldhornisten (2 vols., 1821–1824), and the Lieder der Griechen (1821–1824). The latter collection was Germany’s chief tribute of sympathy to the Greeks in their struggle against the Turkish yoke, a theme which inspired many poets of the time. Two volumes of Neugriechische Volkslieder, and Lyrische Reisen und epigrammatische Spaziergänge, followed in 1825 and 1827. Müller also wrote a book on the Homerische Vorschule (1824; 2nd. ed., 1836), translated Marlowe’s Faustus, and edited a Bibliothek der Dichtungen des 17. Jahrhunderts (1822–1827; 10 vols.). His poetic genius was kindred to that of the composer Schubert, who set many of his lyrics to music.

MÜLLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812–1845), English landscape and figure painter, was born at Bristol on the 28th of June 1812, his father, a Prussian, being curator of the museum. He first studied painting under J. B. Pyne. His early subjects deal mainly with the scenery of Gloucestershire and Wales, and he learned much from his study of Claude, Ruysdael, and earlier landscape-painters. In 1833 he figured for the first time in the Royal Academy with his “Destruction of Old London Bridge—Morning,” and next year he made a tour through France, Switzerland and Italy. Four years later he visited Athens, extending his travels to Egypt, and in the sketches executed during this period and the paintings produced from them his power and individuality are apparent. Shortly after his return he left Bristol and settled in London, where he exhibited regularly. In 1840 he again visited France, where he executed a series of sketches of Renaissance architecture, twenty-five of which were lithographed and published in 1841, in a folio entitled The Age of Francis I. of France. In 1843 he accompanied, at his own request and his own charges, the government