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 purpose at Ashley Down, near Bristol. The money required for the carrying on of this work was voluntarily contributed, mainly as a result of the wide circulation of Müller’s narrative The Lord’s Dealings with George Müller. When he was over seventy he started on a preaching mission, which lasted nearly seventeen years and included Europe, America, India, Australia and China. He died at Bristol on the 10th of March 1898.

MÜLLER, JOHANNES PETER (1801–1858), German physiologist and comparative anatomist, was born at Coblenz on the 14th of July 1801. In 1819 he entered Bonn University, where he became privatdocent in 1824, extraordinary professor of physiology in 1826, and ordinary professor in 1830. In 1883 he removed to the university of Berlin, where he filled the chair of anatomy and physiology with great distinction until his death on the 28th of April 1858. Müller made numerous researches in various departments of physiology, and in particular he extended knowledge as to the mechanism of voice, speech and hearing, and as to the chemical and physical properties of lymph, chyle and blood. The appearance of his Handbuch der Physiologie des Menschen between 1833 and 1840 (translated into English by Dr William Baly, and published in London in 1842) marked the beginning of a new period in the study of physiology. In it, for the first time, the results of human and comparative anatomy, as well as of chemistry and other departments of physical science, were brought to bear on the investigation of physiological problems. The most important portion of the work was that dealing with nervous action and the mechanism of the senses. Here he stated the principle, not before recognized, that the kind of sensation following stimulation of a sensory nerve does not depend on the mode of stimulation but upon the nature of the sense-organ. Thus light, pressure, or mechanical stimulation acting on the retina and optic nerve invariably produces luminous impressions. This he termed the law of the specific energy of sense substances. In the later part of his life he chiefly devoted himself to comparative anatomy. Fishes and marine invertebrata were his favourite subjects. Müller numbered such distinguished physiologists as H. von Helmholtz, E. Du Bois Reymond and K. F. W. Ludwig among his pupils.

MÜLLER, JOHANNES VON (1752–1809), Swiss historian, was born on the 3rd of January 1752 at Neunkirch, near Schaffhausen, where his father was pastor. In 1760 the family removed to Schaffhausen. In his youth his maternal grandfather, Schoop (d. 1757), roused in him an interest in the history of his country. At the age of eight he is said to have written a history of Schaffhausen, and at eleven he knew the names and dates of all the kings of the four great monarchies. His ardour for historical studies was further stimulated by Schlözer, when Müller went (1769) to the university of Göttingen, nominally to study theology. In July 1771 he undertook a sketch of Swiss history (no detailed history of Switzerland having so far been written) for a publisher of Halle, but his theological studies and the preparation of a Latin dissertation on the Bellum cimbricum (publ. in 1772) prevented much progress. In April 1772 he passed his theological examination, and soon after became professor of Greek at the Collegium Humanitatis. Early in 1774, on the advice of his friend Charles Victor de Bonstetten, he gave up this post and became tutor in the Tronchin family at Geneva. But in 1775 he resigned this position also, and passed his time with various friends in Geneva and Vaud, engaged in carrying his historical scheme into effect. Having accumulated much material, he began the actual composition of his work in the spring of 1776, and the printing in the summer of 1777. But difficulties arose with the censor, and matters came to a standstill. In 1778–1779 Müller delivered a brilliant set of lectures on general history, which were not published till 1839 under the title of Vierundzwanzig Bücher allgemeiner Geschichte. In 1780 the first volume (extending to 1388) of his Geschichten der Schweizer appeared, nominally at Boston (to avoid the censor), though really at Bern; and it was well received. In 1781 he published at Berlin, in French, his Essais historiques. He was on his way back to Switzerland when the landgrave of Hesse Cassel named him professor of history. He stayed at Cassel till 1783, publishing in 1782 his Reisen der Päpste, a book wherein certain leanings towards Romanism are visible. On his return to Geneva (1783) he accepted the post of reader to the brother of his old patron, Tronchin, and occupied himself with remodelling his published work of 1780. In order to improve his financial position, he accepted early in 1786 the post of librarian to the elector-archbishop of Mainz, who bestowed many important offices upon him and obtained his elevation to nobility from the emperor in 1791. In June 1786 he issued vol. i. (reaching to 1412) and two years later vol. ii. (to 1436) of the definitive form of his Swiss history, which was received with great praise. In 1787 he issued, an important political tract, Zur Darstellung des Fürstenbundes. But in October 1792 Mainz was taken by the French, so that Müller had to seek for another post. In February 1793 he entered the service of the emperor as an imperial aulic councillor. At Vienna he spent many years, becoming chief librarian of the imperial library in 1800, and in 1795 he issued vol. iii. (to 1443) of his Swiss history. In 1804 he became historiographer, war councillor, and member of the Academy at Berlin. In 1805 vol. iv. (to 1475) appeared. But in 1806 he became strongly inclined towards Napoleon, by whom he was received in audience (Nov. 1806), and from whom he accepted (end of 1807) the office of secretary of state for the kingdom of Westphalia, exchanging this position early in 1808 for the posts of privy councillor and general director of public instruction. At the end of 1808 he published vol. v. (to 1489) of his great work. He died at Cassel on the 29th of May 1809. His Swiss History now possesses a literary value only, but it was an excellent work in every way for the 18th century.

MÜLLER, JULIUS (1801–1878), German Protestant theologian, was born at Brieg on the 10th of April 1801. He studied at Breslau, Göttingen and Berlin, first law, then theology; and in 1839 became professor ordinarius of theology at Halle (1839). In 1848 he helped to found the ''Deutsch-evang. Kirchentag'', and two years later founded and edited (1850–1861), with Neander and K. I. Nitzsch, the Deutsche Zeitschrift für christliche Wissenschaft und christliches Leben. He died at Halle on the 27th of September 1878. A disciple of Neander and friend of Richard Rothe, Müller bitterly opposed the philosophy of Hegel and the criticism of F. C. Baur. His book, Über den Gegensatz des Protestantismus und des Catholicismus (1833), called forth a reply from Baur, and he was one of those who attacked D. Strauss’s Life of Jesus. In 1846 he had been deputed to attend the General Evangelical Synod at Berlin. Here he supported the Consensus-Union, and afterwards defended