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 peace among the more turbulent of his subjects. From early in the century Sus had practically maintained independence, but in 1882 was reduced to submission, as also were subsequently the other great Berber centres, one by one, till the land had rest. Fighting between the Rīfians and Spaniards in 1894 having involved the sultan in the payment of some £650,000 indemnity, he was on his way to recover this from the culprits when he died in camp and was interred at Rabat.

El-Hasan’s death was kept secret till the coffin reached its destination, so that a peaceful proclamation was secured for ‛Abd-el-‛Azīz IV., his son by a Circassian slave who possessed great influence over him. His trusted chamberlain, Si Ahmed ben Mūsa, became Wazīr regent, and put down all opposition, ruling with a

firm, wise hand till 1900, when he died just as his ward attained his majority. Drastic changes thereon took place, and a new set of ministers came into power. The young sultan now showed himself desirous of acquiring and practising foreign arts and of introducing foreign reforms. Under his mother’s advice he sought especially the friendship and advice of Great Britain, on whose disinterested friendship he believed he could rely. But lack of training and experience frustrated his praiseworthy efforts, and he became the prey of schemers and speculators, who pandered to his worst traits and squandered his treasure.

This turn of affairs aroused the fanaticism of his people, and in 1902 the Berber tribes of the Algerian frontier rose in rebellion under Jelāli Zarhōni, nicknamed “Bu Hamāra,” who claimed to be fighting on behalf of the sultan’s brother Mahomet, already imprisoned in Mequinez for revolt. Unable to subdue the rebellion, which did not, however, affect the rest of the empire, ‛Abd-el-‛Azīz borrowed money from France to reorganize his army, but failed to effect his purpose. Meanwhile a local sharīf, Mulai Ahmed er-Raisūli, made himself master of the district round Tangier, holding even foreigners to ransom, and creating a false impression abroad as to the general state of the empire.

The end appeared near when by a declaration, signed in London on the 8th of April 1904, Great Britain, in return for concessions in Egypt, agreed not to interfere with French action in Morocco. In this declaration, one of the series of arrangements marking the establishment of the entente cordiale, France declared that she had no intention of changing the political status of Morocco. She designed, however, a system of “pacific penetration,” and administrative, economic, financial and military reforms—reforms which the Moorish court did not desire. By a separate convention with Spain in October 1904 the interests of that country were safeguarded, and it seemed that the Anglo-French agreement had the approval of all the powers. Some weeks before its conclusion its terms had been communicated to Germany, and four days after its signature Count Bülow had stated in the Reichstag that there was no ground to apprehend that German interests (“essentially economic”) in Morocco would be disregarded. During the remaining months of 1904, however, and in the opening months of 1905, the international situation was changed. Germany had viewed with concern the increased influence of France in Europe, but remained quiescent until after the reverses to the Russian arms in Manchuria, when it was judged in Berlin that the time had arrived for Germany to become the arbiter of European policy; and the means to demonstrate her position were found in the Moroccan question. After having turned a deaf ear to the demands of the Pan-Germanic party for the “vindication” of German rights in Morocco, after in fact nearly a year of acquiescence in the predominant position of France in that country the German

government now complained of being ignored in the Anglo-French arrangement and proceeded to extend its patronage to ‛Abd-el-‛Azīz. On the 31st of March 1905 the German emperor landed at Tangier and had conferences with the sultan’s representatives. The emperor was reported to have declared that he had come to enforce the sovereignty of the sultan, the integrity of Morocco, and the equality of commercial and economic interests. The effect of this intervention was soon apparent. The sultan rejected the scheme of reforms proposed by France, and at the suggestion of Germany issued invitations to the powers to meet his representatives and advise him concerning the reforms needed. The French foreign minister, M. Delcassé, held that there was no need for a conference, but Prince Bülow used menacing language and after a period of much stress M. Delcassé resigned (June, 1905), the French government thereupon agreeing to the holding of a conference. So far the German policy had triumphed; the conference met at Algeciras on the 16th of January 1906 and engaged in the delicate task of reconciling French claims for predominance with the German demand of equality for all. The British delegates gave firm support to their French colleagues, while Austria proved “a brilliant second ” to Germany. With great difficulty a scheme of reforms was elaborated, Germany having previously acknowledged the privileged position of France along the Moroccan-Algerian frontier. The general act embodying the resolutions of the conference was signed on the 7th of April; it was accepted by the sultan on the 18th of June, and the ratifications of the act by the other powers were deposited at the Spanish Foreign Office on the 31st of December 1906. The act provided for a Moorish police force from 2000 to 2500 strong, distributed among the eight open ports of Morocco, to be commanded by Moorish kaids, assisted by French and Spanish instructors and officers, with a Swiss inspector-general—the arrangement to continue for five years. The act provided also for the institution of a state bank (see supra § Finance). Other provisions dealt with (a) the acquisition of land round the ports by foreigners, and the consequent payment by them of the regulated or tertib taxes; (b) the more efficient control of the customs administration, first by an annual assessment of the average values of all imports as a basis for the tariff during the following year, and, secondly, by a strict supervision of the administration itself; and (c) the authority of the state over the public services and public works, tenders for which were to be adjudicated impartially without reference to the nationality of the bidder.

Throughout 1906 the country was in a disturbed condition, and while a Franco-Spanish demonstration off Tangier succeeded in obtaining the removal of Raisūli from the governorship of the town, various outrages occurred (including the murder of a Frenchman in the suburbs of Tangier) for which no satisfaction could be obtained.

At length the murder of Dr. Emile Mauchamp at Marrakesh on the 19th of March 1907 determined the French to take prompt action, and Ujda was occupied (March 29) by Algerian troops, the French government determining to hold the town until satisfaction had been given to their demands. This satisfaction ‛Abd-el-‛Azīz promised in May, and some progress was made towards carrying out the Algeciras programme, the state bank being organized in July 1907. Meantime the weakness of the sultan’s rule was illustrated in many quarters: near Tangier by the continued activity of Raisūli, that chieftain securing in June another European captive—Sir Harry Maclean, who after over seven months’ detention had to be ransomed by the British government for £20,000.