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 in the year 1856, but it was in 1861 that François Blanc, seeing his tenancy at Homburg coming to an end, with no hope of renewal, obtained a concession for fifty years from Charles III. This concession passed into the hands of a joint-stock company, which in 1898 obtained an extension to 1947, in return for a payment to the prince of £400,000 in 1899 and of £600,000 in 1913, together with an increase of the annual tribute of £50,000 to £70,000 in 1907, £80,000 in 1917, £90,000 in 1927, and £100,000 in 1937. None of the inhabitants of Monaco have access to the tables; and their interest in the maintenance of the status quo is secured by their complete exemption from taxation and the large prices paid for their lands. The ruler of the principality, Prince Albert, born 1848, succeeded his father, Prince Charles III., in 1889. He married in 1869 Lady Mary Douglas Hamilton, by whom in 1870 he had a son, Prince Louis: that marriage was, however, annulled in 1880, and subsequently Prince Albert married Alice, dowager-duchess of Richelieu, from whom he was divorced in 1902. The prince is absolute ruler, as there is no parliament in the principality. He is advised by a small council of state, the members of which are appointed by himself. The maire and other municipal authorities are also appointed by the prince. A governor-general presides over the administration. The judicial system is the same as that of France, there being a court of first instance and a juge de paix. By arrangement, two Paris judges form a court of appeal. Monaco is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop.

A temple of Heracles seems to have been built on the Monaco headland by the Phoenicians at a very early date, and the same god was afterwards worshipped there by the Greeks under the surname of, whence the name Monaco. Monoeci Portus or Portus Herculis is frequently mentioned by the later Latin writers. From the 10th century the place was associated with the Grimaldi, a powerful Genoese family who held high offices under the republic and the emperors; but not till a much later date did it become their permanent possession and residence. In the beginning of the 14th century it was notorious for its piracies. Charles I. (a man of considerable mark, who, after doing great service by sea and land to Philip of Valois in his English wars, was severely wounded at Crecy) purchased Mentone and Roccabruna, and bought up the claims of the Spinola to Monaco. The princes of Monaco continued true to France till 1524, when Augustin Grimaldi threw in his lot with Charles V. Honoré I., Augustin's successor, was made marquis of Campagna and count of Canosa, and people as well as rulers were accorded various important privileges. The right to exact toll from vessels passing the port continued to be exercised till the close of the 18th century. Honoré II. in 1641 threw off the supremacy of Spain and placed himself under the protectorate of France; he was compensated for the loss of Canosa, &c., with the duchy and peerage of Valentinois and various lesser lordships; and “duke of Valentinois” long continued to be the title of the heir-apparent of the principality. In 1731 Antoine, his great-grandson, was succeeded by his daughter Louise Hippolyte; she had married Jacques Goyon, count of Matignon and Thorigny, who took the name of Grimaldi and succeeded his wife. The National Convention annexed the principality to France in 1793; restored to the Goyon Grimaldis by the Treaty of Paris in 1814, it was placed by that of Vienna under the protection of Sardinia. The Sardinian government took the opportunity of disturbances that occurred in 1848 to annex Mentone and Roccabruna, which were occupied by a Sardinian garrison till 1859. With the transference of Nice to France in 1860 the principality passed again under French protection.

MONAD (Gr., unit, from , alone), a philosophic term which now has currency solely in its connexion with the philosophy of Leibnitz. In the earlier Greek philosophy the term meant unity as opposed to duality or plurality; at a later time it meant an individual, or, with the Atomists, an atom. It was first used in a sense approximate to that of Leibnitz by Bruno, who meant by it a primary spiritual element as opposed to the material atom. Leibnitz, however, seems to have borrowed the term not directly from Bruno, but from a contemporary, Van Helmont the younger. Leibnitz's view of things is that the world consists of monads which are immaterial centres of force, each possessing a certain grade of mentality, self-contained and representing the whole universe in miniature, and all combined together by a pre-established harmony. Material things, according to Leibnitz, are in their ultimate nature composed of monads, each soul is a monad, and God is the monas monadum. Thus monadism, or monadology, is a kind of spiritual atomism. The theory has been revived in recent years by C. B. Renouvier.

 MONADNOCK, a term derived from Mount Monadnock in New Hampshire, U.S.A., to denote the “isolated remnants of hard rock which remain distinctly above their surroundings in the late stages of an erosion cycle” (T. C. Chamberlin, R. D. Salisbury). Examples are frequently found where a hard pipe of igneous rock surrounded by softer rock is gradually exposed by the washing away of the softer rock and becomes a conspicuous feature of the landscape, forming a volcanic “neck,” and finally, in the later stages of erosion, a stump. The Peak Downs, Queensland, furnish many examples, and Mato Tepee, Wyoming, is a remarkably conspicuous instance of this type of formation.

 MONAGHAN, a county of Ireland in the province of Ulster, bounded E. by Armagh, S.E. by Louth, S. by Meath, S.W. by Cavan, W. by Fermanagh, and N. by Tyrone. The area is 319,741 acres, or about 496 sq. m. The north-western part of  the country is included in the great central plain of Ireland; but  to the south and east the surface is irregular, although none of  the hills is of great elevation. The principal range is that of Slievebeagh, a rugged and barren tract extending into the county  Fermanagh, its highest summit being 1254 ft. above sea-level. The principal rivers are the Finn, which rises near the centre of the county and passes into Fermanagh, and the Blackwater, which forms the boundary with Tyrone. The Ulster Canal passes the towns of Monaghan and Clones, affording communication between Lough Neagh and Lough Erne. In geological structure the county drops from the Upper Carboniferous outlier of Slievebeagh in the north-west to a Carboniferous Limestone area towards Monaghan town; but south of this a tumbled Silurian area stretches across the Cavan and Armagh borders. At Carrickmacross, an outlier of Carboniferous Limestone, Coal Measures (with poor seams of coal) and Trias is encountered. Gypsum has been quarried in the Trias, and lead ore was formerly mined in many places in the Silurian area. The Triassic clay furnishes excellent bricks. Eskers or glacial ridges occur at several places. The limestone is not only abundant and good, but from the position of the rocks it can be obtained at small expense in working. Freestone and slates are quarried in considerable quantities. The soil in the more level portions of the county is fertile where it rests on limestone, and there is also a mixed soil of deep clay, which is capable of high cultivation; but in the hilly regions a strong retentive clay prevails, which could be made productive only by careful draining and culture. Spade husbandry generally prevails. The proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as 1 to 1. Oats, potatoes and turnips are the principal crops, but the quantity grown decreases. The number of cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry, on the other hand, increases or is well maintained. Linen is the only manufacture of consequence, but the cultivation of flax has almost died out. The Belfast and Clones line of the Great Northern railway crosses the county from  north-east to west, passing the town of Monaghan, and the  Dundalk and Clones line of the same company runs from south-east  to west, with branches to Carrickmacross and to Cootehill  (county Cavan).

The population (86,206 in 1891; 74,611 in 1901) decreases as rapidly as any county population in Ireland, and emigration is very heavy. The total includes about 73% of Roman Catholics, and about 12% each of Protestant Episcopalians  and of Presbyterians. The principal towns are Monaghan (the county town, pop. 2932), Clones (2068), Carrickmacross (1874),