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Rh (Feb. 17, 1863), besieged and reduced Puebla, and entered Mexico City on the 7th of June. A provisional government of Mexicans, nominated directly or indirectly by Dubois de Saligny, adopted monarchy, offered the crown to Maximilian of Austria, brother of the Emperor Francis Joseph, and should he refuse, left its disposal to Napoleon III.

Maximilian, after some difficulty as to renouncing his right of succession to the throne of Austria, accepted the crown subject to the approval of the Mexican people, and reached Mexico city on the 12th of June 1864. Juarez meanwhile had set up his capital, first in San Luis Potosí, then in Chihuahua. The new empire was unstable from

the first. Before Maximilian arrived the provisional government had refused to cancel the sales of confiscated Church lands, as the clericals demanded. When he came, a host of new difficulties arose. A new loan, nominally of about eight millions sterling, but yielding little more than four, owing to discount and commission, was raised in Europe, but no funds were really available for its service. Maximilian carried the elaborate etiquette of the court of Vienna to Mexico, but favouring toleration of Protestantism, and the supremacy of the Crown over the Church, he was too liberal for the clericals who had set him up. As a foreigner he was unpopular, and the regiments of Austrians and Belgians which were to serve as the nucleus of his own army were more so. His reforms, excellent on paper, could not be carried out, for the trained bureaucracy necessary did not exist. For a time he nominally held sway over about two-thirds of the country—roughly, from lat. 18° to 23°, thus excluding the extreme north and south. Oaxaca city, under Porfirio Diaz, capitulated to Bazaine—who had superseded the too pro-clerical Forey in October 1864—in February 1865, and by the autumn of that year the condition of the Juarists in the north seemed desperate. But the towns asked for permanent French garrisons, which were refused, as weakening their own power of self-defense. Instead, the country was traversed by flying columns, and the guerillas dealt with by a French service of “contre-guerilla,” who fought with much the same savagery as their foes. Directly the French troops had passed, Republican bands sprang up, and the non-combatant Mexicans, to save themselves, could only profess neutrality. Yet on the 3rd of October 1865, Maximilian, misled by a false report that Juarez had left the country, issued a decree declaring the Juarists guerillas, who, whenever captured, were to be tried by court-martial and shot. Mexican generals on both sides had done as much. But Maximilian’s decree prepared his own fate.

The American Civil War ended in the spring of 1865, and a strong popular feeling was at once manifested in favour of asserting the Monroe doctrine against Maximilian’s government. In the summer there were threatening movements of United States troops towards the Rio Grande; early in 1866 Napoleon III. announced his intention of withdrawing his forces; in response to a note of Seward, the United States secretary of state, of the 12th of February 1866, he was induced to promise their return by three instalments—in November 1866, March and November 1867. Maximilian now turned for support to the Mexican clericals; meditated abdication, but was dissuaded by his wife Charlotte, the daughter of Leopold I. of Belgium (and “the better man of the two,” as he had once jestingly said), who went to intercede for him with the emperor of the French. Finding him obdurate, she went on to appeal to the pope; while at Rome she went mad (end of September 1866).

Maximilian had meanwhile drawn nearer to the clericals and farther from the French, and, to protect French interests, Napoleon III. had decided to send out General Castelnau to supersede Bazaine, arrange for the withdrawal of the French forces in one body, and restore the Republic under Ortega, who had quarrelled with Juarez, and was therefore, of all republicans, least unacceptable to the clericals. But fearing the prospect, they induced Maximilian, who had retired to Orizaba for his health, to remain. He yielded on condition that a congress of all parties should be summoned to decide the fate of the empire. Hereupon he returned to the capital; the Juarist dominion extended rapidly; the French troops left (in one body) on the 5th of February 1867, and shortly after Maximilian took command of the army at Querétaro. Here, with Miramon, he was besieged by the Juarists under Escobedo, and the garrison, when about to make a last attempt to break out, was betrayed by Colonel Lopez to the besiegers (May 15, 1867). Maximilian, with the Mexican generals Miramon and Mejia, was tried by court-martial, and, refusing (or neglecting) to avail himself of various opportunities of escape, was convicted on charges which may be summarized as rebellion, murder and brigandage, on the 14th of June, and shot, with Miramon and Mejia, on the 19th of June 1867, despite many protests from European governments and prominent individuals, including Garibaldi and Victor Hugo. (An effort to save him made by the U.S. Government was frustrated by the dilatoriness of the U.S. Minister accredited to Juarez’s Government.) After considerable difficulty with the Republican Government, his body was brought to Europe.

Meanwhile Porfirio Diaz had captured Puebla (April 2) and besieged Mexico City, which fell on the 21st of June. The last anti-Juarist stronghold (Inayarit) submitted on the 20th of July 1867. A good deal of discontent existed among the republican rank and file, and Juarez’s election in October to the presidency was opposed by Diaz’s

friends, but without success. But so soon as Juarez was elected, insurrections broke out, and brigandage prevailed throughout the following year. There were unsuccessful insurrections also in 1869 (clerical) and 1870 (republican), but an amnesty, passed on the 13th of October 1870, helped to restore peace; trouble again arose, however, at the 1871 election, at which the candidates were Juarez, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada and Diaz. Juarez’s continued re-election was regarded as unconstitutional, and no party obtaining a clear majority, the matter was thrown into Congress, which elected him. Diaz’s supporters refused to recognize him, and a revolution broke out, which went on sporadically till Juarez’s death on the 18th, of July 1872. Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, as president of the Supreme Court, succeeded him, and amnestied the rebels, but made no further concessions. In the next year, however, laws were passed repeating in a stronger form the attacks of 1857 on the supremacy of the Church, and prohibiting monastic life. The first day of 1873 was marked by the opening of the Vera Cruz & Mexico railway. Protestant missions established themselves (with some opposition) in the country, and diplomatic relations were renewed with France and Spain (1874). But towards the close of Lerdo de Tejada’s term he was suspected of aiming at a dictatorship, and Diaz, whom he had proscribed, made preparations for a rising, then retiring to Texas. At the beginning of 1876 the revolution broke out in Oaxaca with the plan of Tuxtepec, which was adopted by Diaz, and proclaimed as the plan of Palo Blanco (March 21). Diaz’s attempt to raise the north, however, failed, and, trying to reach Vera Cruz by sea, he was recognized on the steamer, and recaptured while attempting a four-mile swim ashore. The purser, however, made it appear that he had again jumped overboard, concealed him for some days—generally inside one of the saloon sofas—and helped him to get ashore in disguise at Vera Cruz. He then escaped to Oaxaca and raised a force. Lerdo was declared re-elected, but was overthrown by Diaz after the battle of Tecoac (Nov. 16, 1876) and forced into exile (Jan. 1877), and Diaz was declared, president on the 2nd of May 1877. A law forbidding the re-election of a president till four years had elapsed from his retirement from office was passed in the autumn of that year.