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ARMY: EDUCATION] citizen in the full exercise of his political rights, 35 years of age, not an ecclesiastic, and a resident of the republic at the time of the election. Although the authority of the president is carefully defined and limited by the Constitution, the exercise of dictatorial powers has been so common that the executive may be considered practically supreme and irresponsible. Previous to the presidency of General Porfirio Diaz in 1877 political disorders and changes in government were frequent.

The legislative branch of government consists of a Congress of two chambers—a senate and a chamber of deputies. Two ordinary congressional sessions are held each year—April 1 to May 31 and September 16 to December 15—and a permanent committee of 29 members (14 senators and 15 deputies) sits during recess, with the power to confirm executive appointments, to give assent to a mobilization of the national guard, to convene extra legislative sessions, to administer oaths, and to report at the next session on matters requiring congressional action. The senate is composed of 56 members—or two from each state and from the federal district—who are elected by popular vote for a term of four years, one-half the number retiring every two years. A senator must be not under 30 years of age, a Mexican citizen in the full enjoyment of his rights, a resident of the state he represents, and not an ecclesiastic. The chamber of deputies is composed of popular representatives, in the proportion of one deputy for each 40,000 inhabitants or fraction over 20,000, who are elected for a term of two years. A deputy must be not less than 25 years of age, other qualifications being the same as those for a senator. The salary for either senator or deputy is $3000 and that of the president $50,000. Federal officials and ecclesiastics are ineligible for election to either chamber.

Mexican citizenship includes all persons born of Mexican parents, all naturalized aliens, and all foreigners owning real estate in the republic or having children by Mexican mothers unless formal declaration is made of an intention to retain the citizenship of another country. In some cases exemptions are granted from specified taxes and military duties, otherwise naturalized citizens are treated the same as native-born. Aliens are granted the civil rights enjoyed by Mexicans, but the government reserves the right to expel those guilty of pernicious conduct. Suffrage is extended to all Mexican citizens who possess honest means of livelihood, the age limit being 18 for the married and 21 for the unmarried.

The judicial branch of the government consists of a supreme court of justice, three circuit courts, and 32 district courts. The supreme court is composed of 11 “ministros” or justices, four alternates, a “fiscal” or public prosecutor and the attorney-general—all elected by popular vote for a term of six years. It has jurisdiction in cases arising from the enforcement of the federal laws, except cases involving private interests, in admiralty cases, in cases where the republic is a party, in those between two or more states, or between a state and the citizens of another state, in those originating in treaties with foreign states, and in those affecting diplomatic and consular officials. There are likewise supreme and inferior courts in most of the states, governed by the civil and criminal codes in force in the federal district. The territories are governed by federal laws. The department of justice has oversight in matters relating to the enforcement of the federal laws and the administration of justice through minor courts. The police service is both municipal and federal in character. In some states a local police service is maintained, but in most states the federal government maintains a very efficient force of mounted “rurales.”

The states are organized very much like the federal government, each with its own governor, legislature, laws and judiciary. Elections are generally indirect, like those for the national executive, and official terms correspond closely to those of similar offices in the national organization. The state is nominally sovereign within its own boundaries, and the authority of its officers and courts in local questions is supreme except in cases where federal intervention or supervision is provided for by the federal constitution. The larger political divisions of the state (partidos, distritos, &c.) are governed by a jefe politico, or prefect, and the smaller by a municipal council called an ayuntamiento.

Defence.—The Mexican army consisted in 1908 of 2474 officers and 24,132 men, organized on modern lines, and commanded by a general staff at the capital. There were 30 battalions of infantry and 4 battalions cadres with an effective strength of 730 officers and 14,898 men; 14 regiments of cavalry and 4 regimental cadres with 493 officers and 6058 men; 2 regiments and 3 cadres of field artillery; one regiment and one cadre each of horse and mountain artillery, 4 sections of garrison artillery, and one mitrailleuse company, in all 147 officers and 1647 men; and the remainder divided among other services. Administration and headquarters staffs comprised 885 officers and 531 men. This force represented the peace footing of the army, which is recruited in part by voluntary enlistments and in part by a form of conscription that might be called impressment. Mauser rifles (1901 model) and carbines are used by the infantry and cavalry, and Schneider Canet quick-firing guns by the field and horse artillery. The nominal war strength of the army is rated at 2510 officers and 81,984 men. Factories for arms and ammunition have been established with modern machinery, and uniforms and other equipment are made in the country. The military school in the capital occupies a part of the historic castle of Chapultepec and has been thoroughly reorganized on modern lines. There is also an artillery school at Vera Cruz and subordinate schools in other parts of the republic. The national guard, to which reference is sometimes made, has no effective organization.

Mexico may be said to have no navy, the ten small vessels in commission in 1908 hardly meriting such a designation. There were 2 old despatch boats and 2 old unarmoured gunboats, a steel training cruiser, the “Zaragoza,” and 5 small modern gunboats. The personnel consisted of 198 officers and 965 men. Six new cruisers were projected, but the republic has no pressing need of a navy. Small naval schools are maintained at Campeche and Mazatlán.

Education.—Education in Mexico may be said to have entered upon a progressive phase. The institutions founded by the Spaniards were wholly under ecclesiastical control. The first college in Mexico was founded during the administration of Viceroy Mendoza (1535–1550), but it taught very little beyond Latin, rhetoric, grammar and theology. The university of Mexico, planned by Mendoza and founded on the 21st of September 1551, was formally opened on the 25th of January 1553, with faculties of law, philosophy and theology. Practically nothing was done for the natives beyond oral instruction in the catechism. The university of Mexico received much support from both church and state, but it never gained a position comparable to the universities of South America—Cordoba, Lima (San Marcos) and Bogotá. The overthrow of Spanish rule in Mexico was the beginning of a new period, and efforts were made to introduce educational reforms, but the colonists and ecclesiastics were still governed by their fears and prejudices, and little was accomplished. In 1833 the university of Mexico suspended work, and in 1865 passed out of existence altogether. In 1857 the adoption of a more liberal and democratic constitution paved the way for a new period in the educational history of the country. Its realization was delayed by the wars that devastated the country down to the overthrow of Maximilian, but the leaven was at work, and with the return of peace a marked increase in the number of primary and secondary schools was noted. Colleges of law, medicine and engineering were created in Mexico City in 1865 in place of the old university and were successful from the beginning. Professional schools were also established in several of the more important provincial capitals, and everywhere increasing interest in educational matters was apparent. The best proof of this was to be found in the development of the primary schools, of which there were 8226 in 1874, with an attendance of 360,000 pupils. Of these, 603 were supported by the national government, 5240 by municipalities, 2260 by private enterprise, 117 by the Catholic church, and the remainder by Protestant denominations. Handsome schools were built in the cities and larger towns, and schools were opened in all the villages and hamlets. In some parts the natives made most creditable progress in all branches of learning. This was especially true of the Mixtecos and Zapotecas of Oaxaca, from whom have come some of the leading men of the republic. The national school laws now in force had their origin in the recommendations made by a national congress of public education convened on the 1st of December 1889, and again on the 1st of December 1890. The first result was a law regulating free and compulsory education in the federal district and national territories, which came into effect on the 17th of January 1892. From 1822 to this time the government primary schools had been under the supervision of the Compañia Lancasteriana, but they were now placed under charge of the Department of Public Education. On the 19th of May 1896 a general public education law was promulgated, which provided further regulations for the public schools, and outlined a comprehensive system. Compulsory attendance had been adopted in 1888, but did not come into effect until after the enactment of the law of 1896. It provides for uniform, free and non-sectarian primary instruction, and compulsory attendance for children of 6 to 12 years of age. Preparatory courses for professional training in the government schools were also made free and secular. As the