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 the various kinds of metal-working went through much the same stages as in England.

Persia and Damascus.—The metal-workers of the East, especially in brass and steel, were renowned for their skill even in the time of Theophilus, the monkish writer on the subject in the 13th century. But it was during the reign of Shah Abbas I. (d. 1628) that the greatest amount of skill both in design and execution was reached by the Persian workmen. Delicate pierced vessels of gilt brass, enriched by tooling and inlay of gold and silver, were among the chief specialties of the Persians (see fig. 9). A process called by Europeans “damascening” (from Damascus, the chief seat of the export) was used to produce very delicate and rich surface ornament. A pattern was incised with a graver in iron or steel, and then gold wire was beaten into the sunk lines, the whole surface being then smoothed and polished. In the time of Cellini this process was copied in Italy, and largely used, especially for the decoration of weapons and armour. The repoussé process both for brass and silver was much used by Oriental workers, and even now fine works of this class are produced in the East, old designs still being adhered to.

Modern Art Metal-Work.—The term “art metal-work” is applied to those works in metal in which beauty of form or decorative effect is the first consideration, irrespective of whether the object is intended for use or is merely ornamental; and it embraces any article from a Birmingham brass bedstead to works of the highest artistic merit. The term, as definitely distinguishing one branch of metal-working from another, is objected to by many on the ground that no such prefix was required in the best periods of art, and that allied crafts continue to do without it to the present day. Indeed, as long as metal-working remained a handicraft—in other words, until the introduction of steam machinery—every article, however humble its purpose, seems to have been endowed with some traditional beauty of form. The robust, florid and distinctly Roman rendering of the classic, which followed the refined and attenuated treatment associated with the architecture of the brothers Adam, who died in 1792 and 1794, is the last development in England which can be regarded as a national style. The massively moulded ormolu stair balustrade of Northumberland House, now at 49 Prince’s Gate; the candelabra at Windsor and Buckingham Palace, produced in Birmingham by the firm of Messenger; the cast-iron railings with javelin heads and lictors’ fasces, the tripods, Corinthian column standard lamps and candelabra, boat-shaped oil lamps and tent-shaped lustres with classic mountings, are examples of the metal-work of a style which, outside the eccentric Brighton Pavilion and excursions into Gothic and Elizabethan, was universally accepted in the United Kingdom from the days of the Regency until after the accession of Victoria. Except perhaps the silversmiths, no one was conscious of being engaged in “art metal-working,” yet the average is neither vulgar nor in bad taste, and the larger works are both dignified and suited to their architectural surroundings.

The introduction of gas as an illuminant, about 1816, at once induced a large demand and a novel description of metal fitting; and the craft fell under the control of a new commercial class, intent on breaking with past traditions, and utilizing steam power, electro-deposition, and every mechanical and scientific invention tending to economize metal or labour. But when all artistic perception in Great Britain appeared lost in admiration of the triumphs of machinery and the expansion of trade, a new influence in art matters, that of the prince consort, began to make itself felt. The Great Exhibition, state-aided schools of design, the South Kensington Museum, and the establishment of a Science and Art Department under Government, were among the results of the important art revival which he inaugurated. He is credited with having himself designed candelabra and other objects in metal, and he directly encouraged the production of the sumptuous treatise on metal-work by Digby Wyatt, which laid the foundations of the revival. To this work, and that of Owen Jones, can be traced the origin of the eclecticism which has laid all past styles of art under contribution. The Gothic revival also helped the recognition of art, without very directly affecting the movement. It was valuable in teaching how to work within definite limitations, but without slavish copying; it also emancipated a considerable body of craftsmen from the tyranny of manufacturers whose sole idea was that machine-work should supersede handicraft. Its greatest efforts were the metal chancel-screens designed by Sir G. G. Scott, that for Hereford Cathedral having been exhibited in 1862. It does not appear that the influence either of Owen Jones or Digby Wyatt on metal-working extended beyond bringing the variety and beauty of past styles to the direct notice of designers. Neither can the London silversmiths, though they employed the best talent available, particularly in the decade following the Great Exhibition of 1851, be credited with much influencing the art metal revival. They were rivalled by Elkington of Birmingham, who secured the permanent assistance of at least one fine artist, Morel Ladeuil, the producer of the Elcho Challenge Shield. Perhaps the first actual designer to make a lasting impression on the crafts was Thomas Jeckyll, some of whose work, including gates for Sandringham, was exhibited in 1862. Infinitely greater as a designer was Alfred Stevens, whose influence on English craftsmen might be regarded as almost comparable to that of Michelangelo on that of his Italian contemporaries. Stevens’s designs certainly directly raised the standard of production in several metal-working firms by whom he was employed; whilst in the Wellington Memorial in St Paul’s Cathedral, and in Dorchester House, his work is seen unfettered by commercial considerations. Omitting many whose occasional designs have had little influence on the development of the metal crafts, we come to Alfred Gilbert, whose influence for a time was scarcely less than that of Stevens himself. Monumental works, such as his statue of Queen Victoria at Winchester and his work at Windsor, may be handed down as his greatest achievements, but judged as art metal-work, his smaller productions, such as the centrepiece presented by the army and navy to Queen Victoria on her Jubilee, have been more important.

The charming bronze statuettes of Onslow Ford, the most representative of which are in the Tate Gallery; the work of George Frampton, as seen in the Mitchell Memorial; and the beautiful bas-reliefs of W. Stirling Lee, examples of which are the bronze gates of the Adelphi Bank at Liverpool, have all contributed, especially when applied to architectural decoration, to a high standard of excellence. Painters also have frequently designed and, modelled for metal-work, for example, Lord Leighton, who produced bronze statuettes of most refined character; and Sir L. Alma-Tadema, who designed the grilles for his studio and entrance hall; but none so conspicuously as Professor H. von Herkomer, who, whether working in gold and enamel, iron, or his favourite alloy, pewter, infuses a freshness into his designs and methods which displays an unusual mastery over materials.

The gift of reproducing effects of nature or art by brush or chisel is not necessarily accompanied by power to design; but a noteworthy exponent of the dual faculty is G. C. Haité, whose designs are widely applied.

It is chiefly to architecture that metal-work owes its permanent artistic improvement. In England buildings of Norman Shaw and Ernest George demanded quiet and harmonious metal-work; and the custom of these architects of superintending and designing every detail, even for interiors, created the supply. The work of every worthy architect raises the standard of the crafts; but beyond others Messrs Ashbee, Lethaby and Wilson have taken an active personal interest in schools of metal-work. The technical schools have also been of immense service in creating a class of self-respecting craftsmen, whose wages enable them to regard their work as worthy occupation abounding in interest. Home industries such as the metal-working round Keswick (founded in 1884 by Canon and Mrs Rawnsley), executed during hours of idleness by field labourers and railway porters, educate the passer-by as well as the worker.