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Rh There have been several processes started with the object of rendering leather more useful as a manure.

Hoofs and Horns.—The clippings and shavings from horn factories are largely used by some hop-growers, and, though very slow in their action, they will contain 14 to 15% of nitrogen. They are sometimes very finely ground and sold as “keronikon,” chiefly for use in compound artificial manures.

Dried Blood is another purely nitrogenous material, which however seldom finds its way to the farmer, being used up eagerly by the artificial manure maker. It will contain from 12 to 14% of nitrogen. It is obtained by simply evaporating down the blood obtained from slaughter-houses. It is the most rapidly acting of the organic nitrogenous materials enumerated, and, when obtainable, is a favourite manure with fruit-growers, being also used for root and vegetable growing.

Soot is an article of very variable nature. It owes its manurial value mainly to the ammonia salts it contains, and a good sample will have about 4% of ammonia. It is frequently adulterated, being mixed with ashes, earth, &c. Flue sweepings of factory chimneys are sometimes sold as soot, but possess little value. Besides the ammonia that soot contains, there would undoubtedly seem to be a value attaching to the carbonaceous matter. Soot is a favourite top-dressing for wheat on heavy land, and is efficacious in keeping off slugs, &c. Speaking generally, the lighter a sample of soot is the more likely is it to be genuine.

Sewage Manure.—Where methods of dealing with the solid matters of sewage are in operation, it frequently happens that these matters are dried, generally with the aid of lime, and sold locally. Occasionally they are prepared with the addition of other fertilizing materials and made up as special manures. It may be taken for granted that sewage refuse by itself is not worth transporting to any distance. When made up with lime, the “sludge,” as it is generally termed, is often useful because of the lime it contains. But, on the whole, the value of such preparations has been greatly exaggerated. Where land is in need of organic matter, or where it is desirable to consolidate light land by the addition of material of this class, sludge may, however, have decided value on mechanical and physical grounds, but such land requires to be near at hand.

b. Imported or Manufactured Nitrogenous Manures.

These are nitrate of soda; sulphate of ammonia; calcium cyanamide; calcium nitrate.

Nitrate of Soda.—This is the best known and most generally used of purely nitrogenous manures. It comes from the rainless districts of Chile and Peru, from which it was first shipped about the year 1830. By 1899 the export had reached to 1,344,550 tons. It is uncertain what its origin is, but it is generally believed to be the deposit from an ancient sea which was raised by volcanic eruption and its waters evaporated. Another theory puts it as the deposit from the saline residues of fresh-water streams. The crude deposit is termed caliche, and from this (which contains common salt and sulphates of soda, potash and lime) the nitrate is crystallized out and obtained as a salt containing 95 to 96% pure nitrate of soda. It is sold on a basis of 95% pure, and is but little subject to adulteration.

As a quickly acting nitrogenous manure nitrate of soda has no equal, and it is in great demand as a top-dressing for corn crops, also for roots. On grass-land, if used alone, it tends to produce grass but to exterminate leguminous herbage. Its tendency with corn crops is to produce, if used in quantity, inferiority of quality in grain. It can be employed in conjunction with superphosphate and other artificial manures, though it should not be mixed with them long before the mixture is to be put on. It is a very soluble salt, and the nitrogen being in the form of nitrates, it can be readily taken up by plants. On the other hand, it is readily removed from the soil by drainage, and its effects last only for a single season. Owing to its solubility, it requires to be used in much larger amount than the crop actually will take up. On a heavy soil it has a bad influence if used repeatedly and in quantity, causing the land to “run,” and making the tilth bad. Though, doubtless, exhaustive to the soil, when used alone, there is no evidence yet of nitrate of soda causing land to “run out,” as has been shown to be the case with sulphate of ammonia. One cwt. to the acre is a common dressing for corn crops, but for mangels it has been used to advantage up to 4 cwt. per acre. As a top-dressing for corn crops it differs little in its crop-results from its rival sulphate of ammonia, but in a dry season it answers better, owing to its more ready solubility and quicker action, whereas in a wet season sulphate of ammonia does better.

Sulphate of Ammonia.—This is the great competitor with nitrate of soda, and, like the latter, is useful purely as a nitrogenous manure. It is obtained in the manufacture of gas and as a by-product in the distillation of shale, &c., as also from coke ovens. By adding sulphuric acid to the ammoniacal liquor distilled over from the coal, &c., the salt is crystallized out. It is seldom adulterated, and, as sold in commerce, generally contains 24 to 25% of ammonia. It is not quite so readily soluble as nitrate of soda; it does not act quite so quickly on crops, but is less easily removed from the soil by drainage, leaving also a slight amount of residue for a second crop. It is nearly as efficacious as a top-dressing for corn crops as is nitrate of soda, and for some crops, e.g. potatoes, it is considered superior. It may also be used like nitrate of soda for root crops. On grass-land its effect in increasing gramineous but reducing leguminous herbage is similar to that of nitrate of soda, but with corn crops it has not the same deteriorating influence on the quality of grain. It can be mixed quite well with superphosphate and other artificial manures, and is therefore a common form in which nitrogen is supplied in compound manures. It does not produce the bad effect on the tilth of certain soils that nitrate of soda does, but it is open to the objection that, if used continually on soil poor in lime, it will gradually exhaust the soil and leave it in an acid condition, so that the soil is unable to bear crops again until fertility is restored by the addition of lime. A usual dressing of sulphate of ammonia is 1 cwt. per acre.

Calcium Cyanamide.—This is a new product which represents the earliest result of the utilization, in a commercial form, of atmospheric nitrogen as a manurial substance. It is obtained by passing nitrogen gas over the heated calcium carbide obtained in the electric furnace, the nitrogen then uniting with the carbide to form calcium cyanamide. The product contains from 19 to 20% of nitrogen, and, though still under trial as a nitrogenous manure, it bids fair to form a valuable source of supply, especially should the natural deposits of nitrate of soda become exhausted. The cost of production limits its manufacture to places where electrical power can be cheaply generated. In its action it would seem to resemble most closely sulphate of ammonia.

Calcium Nitrate.—This is another product of the utilization of atmospheric nitrogen as a manurial agent. Nitrogen and oxygen are made to combine within the electric arc and the nitric acid produced is then combined with lime, forming nitrate of lime. Nitrate of lime contains, as put on the market, about 13% of nitrogen. In its action it should be very similar to nitrate of soda, with, possibly, some added benefit to certain soils by reason of the lime it contains. Like cyanamide, it is still in the experimental stage as regards its agricultural use, and can only be produced where electric power is cheaply obtainable.

Neither material is altogether free from objection, the cyanamide heating when mixed with other manures and even with soil, and being liable to give off acetylene gas owing to the presence of calcium carbide, whereas the calcium nitrate is a salt which on exposure to a moist atmosphere readily deliquesces.

II.—

Under the heading of manures that are used purely for their phosphatic benefit to the soil are superphosphate and basic slag.

Superphosphate.—This is the typical phosphatic manure, and is the base of the numerous artificial manures used on the farm. Superphosphate is made by dissolving raw phosphatic minerals in sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), the tribasic phosphate of lime which these contain being converted into the so-called “soluble phosphate,” sulphate of lime being formed at the same time. The first impetus to the manufacture of superphosphate was given by Liebig, when he suggested, in 1840, the treatment of bones with oil of vitriol in order to make them act more quickly in the soil. Lawes subsequently, in 1843, applied this to mineral phosphates, using phosphorite, first of all, and the great manufacture of mineral superphosphate then began. Coprolites, as found in Cambridgeshire, Suffolk, Bedfordshire and elsewhere were the raw materials at first employed in the United Kingdom. But gradually the demand for the new manure became so great that distant parts of the world were searched to bring in the raw material for conversion into superphosphate. Many new sources of supply have been worked, and many worked out or abandoned in favour of better and richer phosphates. Among these were the crystalline apatites of Canada and Norway, French, Spanish and German (Lahn) phosphates, and, at a later period, Carolina (land and river), Florida, Tennessee, Somme, Belgian, Algerian and Tunisian phosphates. In addition to these came other materials which, in their origin, were really of the nature of guano, being bird deposits the ammoniacal matters of which were gradually washed out. The mineral matters remained and altered the composition of the original rock on which the guano was deposited, thus forming rich deposits of phosphate of lime. Such were the phosphates obtained from many of the islands of the West Indies and South Pacific, and known under such various names as Sombrero, Curaçao, Aruba, Maiden Island, Megillones, Baker Island, Fanning Islands, Lacepedes Islands, &c. guanos. Few of these are now worked, but their place has been largely taken by the rich deposits of Ocean Island and Christmas Island, which are of similar origin. The principal supplies of phosphatic minerals at the present time come from Florida, Algeria, Tunis, Ocean Island and Christmas Island. Other phosphates imported are Redonda and Alta Vela phosphates, but these consist mainly of phosphate of alumina, and are not used for superphosphate manufacture but for phosphorus production.

Coprolites, as formerly used, contained from 50 to 60% of phosphate of lime, but they are not worked now, the richer sources, which are also better adapted for superphosphate manufacture, having taken their place. The amount of oxide of iron and alumina in raw phosphates is of great importance, as phosphates containing these bodies are liable to cause superphosphate to “go back” or form what is called “reverted” phosphate, the percentage of “soluble