Page:EB1911 - Volume 17.djvu/632

Rh for, while the former contain principally phosphoric acid, lime, magnesia, and silica and comparatively little nitrogen, the urine is almost destitute of phosphoric acid, and abounds in alkaline salts (including salts of potash) and in nitrogenous organic matters, among which are urea and uric acid, and which on decomposition yield ammonia. Unless, therefore, the two kinds of excrements are mixed, a perfect manure supplying all the needs of the plant is not obtained; care must accordingly be taken to absorb all the urine by the litter. Farm-yard manure, it is well known, is much affected by the length of time and the way in which it has been kept. Fresh dung is soluble in water only to a limited extent, and, in consequence, it acts more slowly on vegetation, and the action lasts longer than when dung is used which has been kept some time; fresh dung is therefore generally used in autumn or winter, and thoroughly rotten dung in spring, when an immediate forcing effect is required.

The changes which farm-yard manure undergoes on keeping, have been made the subject of much inquiry. In Germany, Maercker and Schneidewind; in France, Muntz and Girard; and in England, Voelcker, Wood, Russell and others, have investigated these losses, coming to very similar conclusions concerning them. Perhaps the most complete set of experiments is one conducted at the Woburn experimental station and extending over three years (1899–1901). The dung was cake-fed manure made in feeding-boxes from which no drainage issued, and, after removal, it was kept in a heap, covered with earth. Hence it was made under as good conditions as possible; but, even then, the losses—after deduction for live-weight increase of the animals—were found to be 15% of the total nitrogen of the food, during the making, and 34% (or a further 19%) during storing and by the time the manure came to be put on the land. Accordingly, under ordinary farm conditions it is quite clear that only about 50% of the nitrogen of the food given is recovered in the dung that goes on the land. This is the figure which Lawes and Gilbert suggested in the practical application of their Tables of Compensation for Unexhausted Manure Value.

During the fermentation of dung a large proportion of the non-nitrogenous organic matters disappear in the forms of carbonic acid and water, while another portion is converted into humic acids which fix the ammonia gradually produced from the nitrogenous constituents of the solid and liquid excreta. The mineral matters remain behind entirely in the rotten dung, if care be taken to prevent loss by drainage. For proper decomposition, both air and moisture are requisite, while extreme dryness or too much water will arrest the due fermentation of the mass.

Well-fermented dung is more concentrated and consequently more efficacious than fresh farm-yard manure. Neither fresh nor rotten dung contains any appreciable quantity of volatile ammonia, and there is no advantage from applying gypsum, dilute acid, superphosphate, kainit, or other substances recommended as fixers of ammonia. If dung is carted into the field and spread out at once in thin layers it will suffer comparatively little loss. But if dung be kept for a length of time in shallow heaps, or in open straw-yards and exposed to rain, it loses by drainage a considerable proportion of its most valuable soluble fertilizing constituents. Experiments with farm-yard manure kept in an open yard showed that, after twelve months’ exposure to the weather, nearly all the soluble nitrogen and 78.2% of the soluble mineral matters were lost by drainage (A. Voelcker). To prevent this loss, farm-yard manure, as had been pointed out, should, whenever possible, be carted into the field, spread out at once, and ploughed in at the convenience of the farmer. It is, however, not always practicable to apply farm-yard manure just at the time it is made, and, as the manure heap cannot be altogether dispensed with, it is necessary to see how the manure may best be kept. The best dung is that made in regular pits or feeding-boxes. In them the urine is thoroughly absorbed, and, the manure being more compact through the constant treading, air enters less freely and the decomposition goes on less rapidly, the volatile matters, in consequence, not being so readily lost. External agents, such as rain, wind, sun, &c., do not affect the manure as they would in the case of open yards. Next best to box-fed manure is that made in covered yards, then that in sheds, and lastly that in open yards. When removed from the box or yard, the manure should be put in a heap upon a floor of clay or well-beaten-down earth, and then be covered with earth. When kept in an open yard, care should be taken not to let spoutings of buildings lead on to it, and if there be a liquid-manure tank, this might be pumped out over the manure again when the latter is too dry.

The advantages of farm-yard manure consist, not only in its supplying all the constituents of plant food, but also in the improved physical condition of the soil which results from its application, inasmuch as the land is thereby kept porous, and air is allowed free access. While, however, farm-yard manure has these advantages, experience has shown that artificial manures, properly selected so as to meet the requirements of the crops intended to be grown on the particular land, may be employed to greater advantage. In farm-yard manure about two-thirds of the weight is water and one-third dry matter; a large bulk thus contains only a small proportion of fertilizing substances, and expense is incurred for carriage of much useless matter when dung has to be carted to distant fields. When a plentiful supply of good farm-yard manure can be produced on the farm or bought at a moderate price in the immediate neighbourhood, it is economy to use it either alone or in conjunction with artificial manures; but when food is dear and fattening does not pay, or farm-yard manure is expensive to buy, it will be found more economical to use artificial manures. This has obtained confirmation from the experience of Mr Prout, at Sawbridgeworth, Herts, where since 1866, successive crops of corn have been grown, and entirely with the use of artificial manures.

The real difficulty with farm-yard manure is to get enough of it, and, if it were available in sufficiency, it would be safe to say that farmers generally would not require to go farther in regard to the manuring of any of the crops of the farm. Moreover, experiments at Rothamsted and Woburn have shown of how “lasting” a character farm-yard manure is, its influence having told for some 15 to 20 years after its application had ceased.

Light land is benefited by farm-yard manure through its supplying to the soil organic matter, and imparting to it “substance” whereby it becomes more consolidated and is better able to retain the manurial ingredients given to it. By improving the soil’s moisture-holding capacity, moreover, “burning” of the land is prevented.

With heavy clay soils the advantages are that these are kept more open in texture, drainage is improved, and the soil rendered easier of working. On light land, well-rotted manure is best to apply; and in spring, whereas on heavy land freshly-made, “long,” manure is best, and should be put on in autumn or winter.

Farm-yard manure, where the supply is limited, is mostly saved for the root-crop, which, however, generally needs a little superphosphate to start it, as farm-yard manure is not sufficiently rich in this constituent. It serves a great purpose in retaining the needed moisture in the soil for the root crop.

For potato-growing, for vegetables, and in market-gardening, farm-yard manure is almost indispensable. On grass-land and on clover-ley it is also very useful, and in the neighbourhood of large towns is employed greatly for the production of hay.

For corn crops also, and especially for wheat on heavy land, farm-yard manure is much used, and, in a dry season in particular, shows excellent results, though experiments at Rothamsted and Woburn have shown that, on heavy and light land alike, heavier crops of wheat and barley can be produced in average seasons by artificial manures.

Seaweed.—Along the sea-coast seaweed is collected, put in heaps and allowed to rot, being subsequently used on the land, just as farm-yard manure is. According to the nature of the weed and its water-contents, it may have from .3 to 1% of nitrogen, or more, with potash in some quantity.

Green-manuring.—Though properly belonging to cultivation rather than to manuring, and acting chiefly as a means of improving the condition of the soil, the practice of green-manuring carries with it manurial benefits also, in that it supplies humus and nitrogen to the soil, and provides a substitute for farm-yard manure. The ploughing-in of a leguminous green-crop which has collected nitrogen from the atmosphere should result in a greater accumulation of nitrogen for a succeeding corn-crop, and thus supply the cheapest form of manuring. Green-manuring is most beneficial on light land, poor in vegetable matter.

Manure Cakes, Malt Dust, Spent Hops, &c.—Many waste materials of this kind are used because of their supplying, in the form of nitrogenous organic matter, nitrogen for crop uses. The nitrogen in these is of somewhat slow-acting, but lasting, nature. In addition to nitrogen, some of these materials, e.g. rape cake, cotton cake and castor cake, contain appreciable amounts of phosphoric acid and potash. Rape cake, or “land cake,” as it is called in Norfolk, is used considerably for wheat. It is also believed to be a preventive of wireworm, and so is often employed for potatoes and root-crops. Rape-seed from which the oil has been extracted by chemical means, and which is called “rape refuse,” is made use of in hop-gardens as a slowly acting supplier of nitrogen. It will contain 4 to 5% of nitrogen with 3 to 4% of phosphates. Damaged cotton and other feeding-cakes, no longer fit for feeding, are ground into meal and put on the land. Castor cake is directly imported for manurial purposes, and will have up to 5% of nitrogen with 4 to 5% of phosphates. Spent hops, malt dust and other waste materials are similarly used. The principal use of these materials is on light land, and to give bulk to the soil while supplying nitrogen in suitable form.

Wool-dust, Shoddy, &c.—The clippings from wool, the refuse from cloth factories, silk, fur and hair waste, carpet clippings and similar waste materials are comprised in this category. They are valuable purely for their nitrogen, and should be purchased according to their nitrogen-contents. They are favourite materials with hop-growers and fruit-farmers, whose experience leads them to prefer a manure which supplies its nitrogen in organic form, and which acts continuously, if not too readily. It is the custom in hop-lands to manure the soil annually with large quantities of these waste materials till it has much fertility stored up in it for succeeding crops. According to its nature, wool-dust or shoddy may contain anything from 3% of nitrogen up to 14%.

Leather is another waste material of the same class, but the process of tanning it has undergone makes its nitrogen but very slowly available and it is avoided, in consequence, as a manure.