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HISTORY FROM 1579] the one side are the liberals, divided into moderates and progressives, the representatives to a large extent of the commercial towns. Opposed to them is the coalition of

the orthodox Protestant conservatives, styled anti-revolutionaries, supported by the Calvinistic peasantry, and the Catholics, who represent about one-third of the population and have their headquarters in Dutch Brabant, Dutch Flanders and Limburg. There is also in the Netherlands a small, but very strenuous socialist party, which was founded by the active propaganda of an ex-pastor Domela-Nieuwenhuis. It draws its chief strength from Amsterdam and certain country districts of Friesland.

The liberals were in power from 1871 to 1888 continuously, but a Catholic-anti-revolutionary ministry under Baron Mackay held office from 1888 to 1891, and again a coalition ministry was formed in 1901 with Dr Kuyper at its head. From 1894 to 1897 a ministry of moderate

liberals supported by a large part of the Catholic and anti-revolutionary parties were in power. The constitution of 1848 made it the duty of the state to provide free primary secular education, but it allowed to members of all creeds the liberty of establishing private schools, and this was carried into effect by a law passed in 1857 by the joint efforts of the liberals and Catholics against the opposition of the orthodox Calvinists. But the long liberal ascendancy closed the ranks of the Catholic-Calvinist coalition, and united them against the neutral schools, and in 1889 they were able to pass a law enabling not only the unsectarian public schools, but all private schools organized by societies and bodies recognized by the law to receive subventions from the state. In 1890 there were 3000 public schools with 450,000 scholars and 1300 private schools with 195,000 scholars.

The subject of the extension of the franchise has also been the cause of violent party strife and controversy. It was taken in hand as early as 1872, but as a revision of the constitution was necessary, no change was actually carried out till 1887. The law of that year lowered the qualification of the payer of a direct tax to 10 fl. Votes were given to all householders paying a certain minimum house duty, and to all lodgers who had for a given time paid a minimum of rent, also to all who possessed certain educational and social qualifications, whose definition was left to be specified by a later law. The passing of such a law was deferred by the coalition (Catholic-Orthodox) ministry of 1888–1891. The liberal ministry of 1891 attempted to deal with the question, and a proposal was made by the minister Tak van Poortvliet, which almost amounted to universal

suffrage. The educational qualification was to be able to write, the social that of not receiving charitable relief. This proposal caused a cleavage right through all parties. It was supported by the radical left, by a large portion of the Orthodox-Calvinists under Dr Kuyper, and by some Catholics; it had against it the moderate liberals, the aristocratic section of the Orthodox-Calvinists, the bulk of the Catholics, and a few radicals under an influential leader van Houten. After a fierce electoral fight the Takkians were victors at the first polls, but were beaten at the second ballots. Of the 46 Takkians, 35 were liberals; of the 54 anti-Takkians, 24 were Catholics. A moderate liberal ministry was formed (1894) and in 1896 carried into law what was known as the van Houten project. It gave the right of voting to all Dutchmen over twenty-five years of age, who paid 1 fl. in direct taxation; were householders or lodgers as defined in 1887, or tenants of a vessel of, at least, 24 tons; were the recipients of certain salaries or had certain deposits in the public funds or savings banks. By this reform the number of electors, which had been raised in 1887 from 140,000 to 300,000, was augmented to

700,000. The question of universal military service has also divided parties. The principle of personal service has been strongly opposed by the Catholics and conservatives, but became the law of the land in 1898, though exemptions were conceded in favour of ecclesiastics and certain classes of students.

The long-continued and costly wars with the sultan of Achin have during a series of years been a source of trouble to Dutch ministries. In 1871–1872 Great Britain, in exchange for certain possessions of Holland on the coast of Guinea, agreed to recognize the right of the Dutch

to occupy the north of Sumatra. The sultan of Achin opposed by force of arms the efforts of the Dutch to make their occupation effective, and has succeeded in maintaining a vigorous resistance, the Dutch colonial troops suffering severely from the effects of the insalubrious climate. Until 1871 the surplus derived from the colonial budget had been turned into a deficit, and the necessity of imposing fresh taxes to meet the war expenses has led to the downfall both of individual ministries and of cabinets.

William III. dying in 1890 was succeeded by his only surviving child, Wilhelmina. The new queen being a minor, her mother, the queen-dowager Emma, became regent. One effect of the accession of Queen Wilhelmina was the severance of the bond between the Netherlands and

Luxemburg. The grand duchy, being hereditary only in the male line, passed to the nearest agnate, the duke of Nassau. In 1898 the queen, having reached the age of eighteen, assumed the government. She married in 1901 Prince Henry of Mecklenburg. The outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 led to a strong outburst of sympathy among the Dutch on behalf of their kinsmen in South Africa, and there were times during the war, especially after President Kruger had fled from the Transvaal in a Dutch war vessel and had settled in Holland, when it was a task of some difficulty for the Dutch government to prevent the relations between Great Britain and the Netherlands from becoming strained. The ministry, however, under Dr Kuyper were able to keep the popular feeling in favour of the Boers in restraint, and to maintain towards Great Britain a correct attitude of strict neutrality. In 1903 the government took strong measures to prevent a threatened general strike of railway employees, the military were called out, and occupied the stations. A bill was passed by the States-General declaring railway strikes illegal. The elections of 1905 for the Second Chamber gave the liberals a narrow majority of four. Dr Kuyper accordingly resigned, and a moderate liberal cabinet was formed by Th. H. de Meester. The fact that up to 1908 the queen had not become a mother gradually caused some public concern as to the succession; but in 1909 Queen Wilhelmina, amid national rejoicings, gave birth to a princess.

—See (for the general history) J. Wagenaar, Vaderlandsche historie, to 1751 (21 vols., 1749–1759); continuation by Az. P. Loosjes, from 1751–1810 (48 vols., 1786–1811); W. Bilderdijk, Geschiedenis der Vaderlands (13 vols., 1832–1853); Groen G. van Prinsterer, Handboek der Geschiedenis van het Vaderland (6th ed., 1895); (for particular periods): L. ab Aitzema, Saken van spaet en oorlogh in ende om trent de Vereenigde Nederlanden (1621–1668) (15 vols., 1657–1671); continuation by Lambert van den Bos (Lambertus Sylvius) (4 vols., 1685–1699). The work of Aitzema contains a large number of important diplomatic and other documents; A. de Wicquefort, Histoire des provinces des Pays-Bas depuis la paix de Munster (1648–1658) (2 vols., 1719–1743); in these volumes will be also found a rich collection of original documents; R. Fruin, Tien jaren uit den tactig jarigen oorlog (1588–1598), (6th ed., 1905), a standard work; J. L. Motley, History of the United Netherlands (1584–1609), (4 vols., 1860–1868); P. J. Blok, History of the People of the Netherlands, vol. iii. (1568–1621) (trans. by Ruth Putnam, 1900); Cambridge Modern History, vol. iii. ch. xix. and vol. iv. ch. xxv. (see the bibliographies); Ant. L. Pontales, Vingt années de république ''parlementaire au 17me siècle. Jean de Witt, grand pensionnaire'' de Hollande (1884); E. C. de Gerlache, Histoire du royaume des Pays-Bas 1814–1830 (3 vols., 1859); Bosch J. de Kemper, Geschiedenis van Nederland na 1830 (5 vols., 1873–1882); also the following important works: Groen G. van Prinsterer, Archives ou correspondance inédite de la maison d’Orange-Nassau, 2e série (1584–1688) (5 vols., 1857–1860); J. de Witt, Brieven (1652–1669) (6 vols., 1723–1725); A. Kluit, Historie der Hollandsche Staatsregering tot 1795 (5 vols., 1802–1805); G. W. Vreede, Inleiding tot eene geschiedenis der Nederlandsche diplomatic (6 vols., 1850–1865); J. C. de Jonge, Geschiedenis van het Nederlandsche Zeewesen, (6 vols., 1833–1848); E. Luzac, Holland’s Rijkdom (4 vols., 1781); R. Fruin, Geschiedenis der Staatsinstellingen in Nederland tot den val der Republick, edn. Colenbrander (1901); N. G. van Kampen, Geschiedenis der Nederlanders buiten Europa (4 vols., 1833); W. J. A. Jonckbloet,