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 which would have filled them with suspicion. A profound anatomist of the heart, he was singularly free from morbidness, and in his darkest speculations concerning evil was robustly right-minded. He worshipped conscience with his intellectual as well as his moral nature; it is supreme in all he wrote. Besides these mental traits, he possessed the literary quality of style—a grace, a charm, a perfection of language which no other American writer ever possessed in the same degree, and which places him among the great masters of English prose.

His Complete Writings (22 vols., Boston, 1901) were edited, with introduction, including a bibliography, by H. S. Scudder. The standard authority for Hawthorne’s biography is Nathaniel Hawthorne and his Wife (2 vols., Boston, 1884), by his son Julian Hawthorne (b. 1846), himself a novelist and critic of distinction. See also Henry James, Hawthorne (London, 1879), in the “English Men of Letters” series; Julian Hawthorne, Hawthorne and his Circle (New York, 1903); a paper in R. H. Hutton’s Essays Theological and Literary (London, 1871); George B. Smith, Poets and Novelists (London, 1875); Moncure D. Conway, Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne (London, 1890, in the “Great Writers” series); Horatio Bridge, Personal Recollections of Nathaniel Hawthorne (New York, 1893); Rose Hawthorne Lathrop, Memories of Hawthorne (Boston, 1897); W. C. Lawton, The New England Poets (New York, 1898); Sir L. Stephen, Hours in a Library (1874); Annie Fields, Nathaniel Hawthorne (Boston, 1899); G. E. Woodberry, Life of Hawthorne (1902); and bibliography by N. E. Browne (1905).

HAWTREY, CHARLES HENRY (1858–&emsp;&emsp;), English actor, was born at Eton, where his father was master of the lower school, and educated at Rugby and Oxford. He took to the stage in 1881, and in 1883 adapted von Moser’s Bibliothekar as The Private Secretary, which had an enormous success. He then appeared in London in a number of modern plays, in which he was conspicuous as a comedian. He was unapproachable for parts in which cool imperturbable lying constituted the leading characteristic. Among his later successes A Message from Mars was particularly popular in London and in America.

HAWTREY, EDWARD CRAVEN (1789–1862), English educationalist, was born at Burnham on the 7th of May 1789, the son of the vicar of the parish. He was educated at Eton and King’s College, Cambridge, and in 1814 was appointed assistant master at Eton under Dr Keate. In 1834 he became headmaster of the college, and his administration was a vigorous one. New buildings were erected, including the school library and the sanatorium, the college chapel was restored, the Old Christopher Inn was closed, and the custom of “Montem,” the collection by street begging of funds for the university expenses of the captain of the school, was suppressed. He is supposed to have suggested the prince consort’s modern language prizes, while the prize for English essay he founded himself. In 1852 he became provost of Eton, and in 1854 vicar of Mapledurham. He died on the 27th of January 1862, and was buried in the Eton College chapel. On account of his command of languages ancient and modern, he was known in London as “the English Mezzofanti,” and he was a book collector of the finest taste. Among his own books are some excellent translations from the English into Italian, German and Greek. He had a considerable reputation as a writer of English hexameters and as a judge of Homeric translation.

HAXO, FRANÇOIS NICOLAS BENOÎT, (1774–1838), French general and military engineer, was born at Lunéville on the 24th of June 1774, and entered the Engineers in 1793. He remained unknown, doing duty as a regimental officer for many years, until, as major, he had his first chance of distinction in the second siege of Saragossa in 1809, after which Napoleon made him a colonel. Haxo took part in the campaign of Wagram, and then returned to the Peninsula to direct the siege operations of Suchet’s army in Catalonia and Valencia. In 1810 he was made general of brigade, in 1811 a baron, and in the same year he was employed in preparing the occupied fortresses of Germany against a possible Russian invasion. In 1812 he was chief engineer of Davout’s I. corps, and after the retreat from Moscow he was made general of division. In 1813 he constructed the works around Hamburg which made possible the famous defence of that fortress by Davout, and commanded the Guard Engineers until he fell into the enemy’s hands at Kulm. After the Restoration Louis XVIII. wished to give Haxo a command in the Royal Guards, but the general remained faithful to Napoleon, and in the Hundred Days laid out the provisional fortifications of Paris and fought at Waterloo. It was, however, after the second Restoration that the best work of his career as a military engineer was done. As inspector-general he managed, though not without meeting considerable opposition, to reconstruct in accordance with the requirements of the time, and the designs which he had evolved to meet them, the old Vauban and Cormontaigne fortresses which had failed to check the invasions of 1814 and 1815. For his services he was made a peer of France by Louis Philippe (1832). Soon after this came the French intervention in Belgium and the famous scientific siege of Antwerp citadel. Under Marshal Gérard Haxo directed the besiegers and completely outmatched the opposing engineers, the fortress being reduced to surrender after a siege of a little more than three weeks (December 23, 1832). He was after this regarded as the first engineer in Europe, and his latter years were spent in urging upon the government and the French people the fortification of Paris and Lyons, a project which was partly realized in his time and after his death fully carried out. General Haxo died at Paris on the 25th of June 1838. He wrote Mémoire sur le figuré du terrain dans les cartes topographiques (Paris, N.D.), and a memoir of General Dejean (1824).

HAXTHAUSEN, AUGUST FRANZ LUDWIG MARIA, (1792–1866), German political economist, was born near Paderborn in Westphalia on the 3rd of February 1792. Having studied at the school of mining at Klausthal, and having served in the Hanoverian army, he entered the university of Göttingen in 1815. Finishing his course there in 1818 he was engaged in managing his estates and in studying the land laws. The result of his studies appeared in 1829 when he published Über die Agrarverfassung in den Fürstentümern Paderborn und Corvey, a work which attracted much attention and which procured for its author a commission to investigate and report upon the land laws of the Prussian provinces with a view to a new code. After nine years of labour he published in 1839 an exhaustive treatise, Die ländliche Verfassung in der Provinz Preussen, and in 1843, at the request of the emperor Nicholas, he undertook a similar work for Russia, the fruits of his investigations in that country being contained in his Studien über die innern Zustände des Volkslebens, und insbesondere die ländlichen Einrichtungen Russlands (Hanover, 1847–1852). He received various honours, was a member of the combined diet in Berlin in 1847 and 1848, and afterwards of the Prussian upper house. Haxthausen died at Hanover on the 31st of December 1866.

In addition to the works already mentioned he wrote Die ländliche Verfassung Russlands (Leipzig, 1866). His Studien has been translated into French and into English by R. Farie as The Russian Empire (1856). Other works of his which have appeared in English are: Transcaucasia; Sketches of the Nations and Races between the Black Sea and the Caspian (1854), and The Tribes of the Caucasus (1855). Haxthausen edited Das konstitutionelle Prinzip (Leipzig, 1864), a collection of political writings by various authors, which has been translated into French (1865).

HAY, GEORGE (1729–1811), Scottish Roman Catholic divine, was born at Edinburgh on the 24th of August 1729. He was accused of sympathizing with the rebellion of 1745 and served a term of imprisonment 1746–1747. He then entered the Roman Catholic Church, studied in the Scots College at Rome, and in 1759 accompanied John Geddes (1735–1799), afterwards bishop of Morocco, on a Scottish mission. Ten years later he was appointed bishop of Daulis in partibus and coadjutor to Bishop James Grant (1706–1778). In 1778 he became vicar apostolic of the lowland district. During the Protestant riots in Edinburgh in 1779 his furniture and library were destroyed by fire. From 1788 to 1793 he was in charge of the Scalan seminary; in 1802 he retired to that of Aquhorties near Inverury which he had founded in 1799. He died there on the 15th of October 1811.

His theological works, including The Sincere Christian, The Devout Christian, The Pious Christian and The Scripture Doctrine of Miracles, were edited by Bishop Strain in 1871–1873.