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 the public to wait the convenience of science, was a serious obstacle to their employment for research. Thus Walker feelingly says, when regretting his paucity of data during a notable earth current disturbance: “Our clerks were at their wits’ end to clear off the telegrams At a time when observations would have been very highly acceptable they were too much occupied with their ordinary duties.” Some valuable observations have, however, been made on long telegraph lines where special facilities have been given.

Amongst these may be mentioned the observations on French lines in 1883 described by E. E. Blavier (3), and those on two German lines Berlin-Thorn and Berlin-Dresden during 1884 to 1888 discussed by B. Weinstein (4).

2. Of the experimental lines specially constructed perhaps the best known are the Greenwich lines instituted by Sir G. B. Airy (5), the lines at Pawlowsk due to H. Wild (6), and those at Parc Saint Maur, near Paris (7).

Experimental Lines.—At Greenwich observations were commenced in 1865, but there have been serious disturbances due to artificial currents from electric railways for many years. There are two lines, one to Dartford distant about 10 m., in a direction somewhat south of east, the other to Croydon distant about 8 m., in a direction west of south.

Information from a single line is incomplete, and unless this is clearly understood erroneous ideas may be derived. The times at which the current is largest and least, or when it vanishes, in an east-west line, tell nothing directly as to the amplitude at the time of the resultant current. The lines laid down at Pawlowsk in 1883 lay nearly in and perpendicular to the geographical meridian, a distinct desideratum, but were only about 1 km. long. The installation at Parc Saint Maur, discussed by T. Moureaux, calls for fuller description. There are three lines, one having terminal earth plates 14·8 km. apart in the geographical meridian, a second having its earth plates due east and west of one another, also 14·8 km. apart, and the third forming a closed circuit wholly insulated from the ground. In each of the three lines is a Deprez d’Arsonval galvanometer. Light reflected from the galvanometer mirrors falls on photographic paper wound round a drum turned by clockwork, and a continuous record is thus obtained.

3. Each galvanometer has a resistance of about 200 ohms, but is shunted by a resistance of only 2 ohms. The total effective resistances in the N.-S. and E.-W. lines are 225 and 348 ohms respectively. If i is the current recorded, L, g and s the resistances of the line, galvanometer and shunt respectively, then E, the difference of potential between the two earth plates, is given by E＝i (1 + g/s) {L + gs / (g + s)}. To calibrate the record, a Daniell cell is put in a circuit including 1000 ohms and the three galvanometers as shunted. If i&#8202;′ be the current recorded, e the E.M.F. of the cell, then e＝i&#8202;′ (1 + g/s) {1000 + 3gs/(g + s)}. Under the conditions at Parc Saint Maur we may write 2 for gs/(g + s), and 1·072 for e, and thence we have approximately E＝0·240 (i / i&#8202;′) for the N.-S. line, and E＝−0·371(i / i&#8202;′) for the E.-W. line.

The method of standardization assumes a potential difference between earth plates which varies slowly enough to produce a practically steady current. There are several causes producing currents in a telegraph wire which do not satisfy this limitation. During thunderstorms surgings may arise, at least in overhead wires, without these being actually struck. Again, if the circuit includes a variable magnetic field, electric currents will be produced independently of any direct source of potential difference. In the third circuit at Parc Saint Maur, where no earth plates exist, the current must be mainly due to changes in the earth’s vertical magnetic field, with superposed disturbances due to atmospheric electricity or aerial waves. Even in the other circuits, magnetic and atmospheric influences play some part, and when their contribution is important, the galvanometer deflection has an uncertain value. What a galvanometer records when traversed by a suddenly varying current depends on other things than its mere resistance.

Even when the current is fairly steady, its exact significance is not easily stated. In the first place there is usually an appreciable E.M.F. between a plate and the earth in contact with it, and this E.M.F. may vary with the temperature and the dryness of the soil. Naturally one employs similar plates buried to the same depth at the two ends, but absolute identity and invariability of conditions can hardly be secured. In some cases, in short lines (8), there is reason to fear that plate E.M.F.’s have been responsible for a good deal that has been ascribed to true earth currents. With deep earth plates, in dry ground, this source of uncertainty can, however, enter but little into the diurnal inequality.

4. Another difficulty is the question of the resistance in the earth itself. A given E.M.F. between plates 10 m. apart may mean very different currents travelling through the earth, according to the chemical constitution and condition of the surface strata.

According to Professor A. Schuster (9), if and ′ be the specific resistances of the material of the wire and of the soil, the current i which would pass along an underground cable formed of actual soil, equal in diameter to the wire connecting the plates, is given by i＝i&#8202;′/′, where i&#8202;′ is the observed current in the wire. As ′ will vary with the depth, and be different at different places along the route, while discontinuities may arise from geological faults, water channels and so on, it is clear that even the most careful observations convey but a general idea as to the absolute intensity of the currents in the earth itself. In Schuster’s formula, as in the formulae deduced for Parc Saint Maur, it is regarded as immaterial whether the wire connecting the plates is above or below ground. This view is in accordance with records obtained by Blavier (3) from two lines between Paris and Nancy, the one an air line, the other underground.

5. The earliest quantitative results for the regular diurnal changes in earth currents are probably those deduced by Airy (5) from the records at Greenwich between 1865 and 1867. Airy resolved the observed currents from the two Greenwich lines in and perpendicular to the magnetic meridian (then about 21° to the west of astronomical north). The information given by Airy as to the precise meaning of the quantities he terms “magnetic tendency” to north and to west is somewhat scanty, but we are unlikely to be much wrong in accepting his figures as proportional to the earth currents from magnetic east to west and from magnetic north to south respectively. Airy gives mean hourly values for each month of the year. The corresponding mean diurnal inequality for the whole year appears in Table 1., the unit being arbitrary. In every month the algebraic mean of the 24 hourly values represented a current from north to south in the magnetic meridian, and from east to west in the perpendicular direction; in the same arbitrary units used in Table I. the mean values of these two “constant” currents were respectively 777 and 559.

6. Diurnal Variation.—Probably the most complete records of diurnal variation are those discussed by Weinstein (4), which depend on several years’ records on lines from Berlin to Dresden and to Thorn. Relative to Berlin the geographical co-ordinates of the other two places are: Thus the Berlin-Dresden line was directed about 8° east of south, and the Berlin-Thorn line somewhat more to the north of east. The latter line had a length about 2·18 times that of the former. The resistances in the two lines were made the same, so if we suppose the difference of potential between earth plates along a given direction to vary as their distance apart, the current observed in the Thorn-Berlin line has to be divided by 2·18 to be comparable with the other. In this way, resolving along and perpendicular to the geographical meridian, Weinstein gives as proportional to the earth currents from east to west and from south to north respectively J＝0·147i&#8202;′ + 0·435i, and J′＝0·989i&#8202;′ − 0·100i,