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Rh the 19th century in some of the most obvious departments of classical learning. Among natives of Germany the leading scholars have been, in Greek, C. F. W. Jacobs, C. A.

Lobeck, L. Dissen, I. Bekker, A. Meineke, C. Lehrs, W. Dindorf, T. Bergk, F. W. Schneidewin, H. Köchly, A. Nauck, H. Usener, G. Kaibel, F. Blass and W. Christ; in Latin, C. Lachmann, F. Ritschl, M. Haupt, C. Halm, M. Hertz, A. Fleckeisen, E. Bährens, L. Müller and O. Ribbeck. Grammar and kindred subjects have been represented by P. Buttmann, A. Matthiae, F. W. Thiersch, C. G. Zumpt, G. Bernhardy, C. W. Krüger, R. Kühner and H. L. Ahrens; and lexicography by F. Passow and C. E. Georges. Among editors of Thucydides we have had E. F. Poppo and J. Classen; among editors of Demosthenes or other orators, G. H. Schäfer, J. T. Vömel, G. E. Benseler, A. Westermann, G. F. Schömann, H. Sauppe, and C. Rehdantz (besides Blass, already mentioned). The Platonists include F. Schleiermacher, G. A. F. Ast, G. Stallbaum and the many-sided C. F. Hermann; the Aristotelians, C. A. Brandis, A. Trendelenburg, L. Spengel, H. Bonitz, C. Prantl, J. Bernays and F. Susemihl. The history of Greek philosophy was written by F. Ueberweg, and, more fully, by E. Zeller. Greek history was the domain of G. Droysen, Max Duncker, Ernst Curtius, Arnold Schäfer and Adolf Holm; Greek antiquities that of M. H. Meier and G. F. Schömann and of G. Gilbert; Greek epigraphy that of J. Franz, A. Kirchhoff, W. von Hartel, U. Köhler, G. Hirschfeld and W. Dittenberger; Roman history and constitutional antiquities that of Theodor Mommsen (1817–1903), who was associated in Latin epigraphy with E. Hübner and W. Henzen. Classical art and archaeology were represented by F. G. Welcker, E. Gerhard, C. O. Müller, F. Wieseler, O. Jahn, C. L. Urlichs, H. Brunn, C. B. Stark, J. Overbeck, W. Helbig, O. Benndorf and A. Furtwängler; mythology (with cognate subjects) by G. F. Creuzer, P. W. Forchhammer, L. Preller, A. Kuhn, J. W. Mannhardt and E. Rohde; and comparative philology by F. Bopp, A. F. Pott, T. Benfey, W. Corssen, Georg Curtius, A. Schleicher and H. Steinthal. The history of classical philology in Germany was written by Conrad Bursian (1830–1883).

In France we have J. F. Boissonade, J. A. Letronne, L. M. Quicherat, M. P. Littré, B. Saint-Hilaire, J. V. Duruy, B. E. Miller, É. Egger, C. V. Daremberg, C. Thurot, L. E. Benoist, O. Riemann and C. Graux; (in archaeology) A. C. Quatremère de Quincy, P. le Bas, C. F. M. Texier, the duc

de Luynes, the Lenormants (C. and F.), W. H. Waddington and O. Rayet; and (in comparative philology) Victor Henry. Greece was ably represented in France by A. Koraes. In Belgium we have P. Willems and the Baron De Witte (long resident in France); in Holland, C. G. Cobet; in Denmark, J. N. Madvig. Among the scholars of Great Britain and Ireland may be mentioned:

P. Elmsley, S. Butler, T. Gaisford, P. P. Dobree, J. H. Monk, C. J. Blomfield, W. Veitch, T. H. Key, B. H. Kennedy, W. Ramsay, T. W. Peile, R. Shilleto, W. H. Thompson, J. W. Donaldson, Robert Scott, H. G. Liddell, C. Badham, G. Rawlinson, F. A. Paley, B. Jowett, T. S. Evans, E. M. Cope, H. A. J. Munro, W. G. Clark, Churchill Babington, H. A. Holden, J. Riddell, J. Conington, W. Y. Sellar, A. Grant, W. D. Geddes, D. B. Monro, H. Nettleship, A. Palmer, R. C. Jebb, A. S. Wilkins, W. G. Rutherford and James Adam; among historians and archaeologists, W. M. Leake, H. Fynes-Clinton, G. Grote and C. Thirlwall, T. Arnold, G. Long and Charles Merivale, Sir Henry Maine, Sir Charles Newton and A. S. Murray, Robert Burn and H. F. Pelham. Among comparative philologists Max Müller belonged to Germany by birth and to England by adoption, while, in the United States, his ablest counterpart was W. D. Whitney. B. L. Gildersleeve, W. W. Goodwin, Henry Drisler, J. B. Greenough and G. M. Lane were prominent American classical scholars.

The 19th century in Germany was marked by the organization of the great series of Greek and Latin inscriptions, and by the foundation of the Archaeological Institute in Rome (1829), which was at first international in its character. The Athenian Institute was founded in 1874. Schools at Athens and Rome were founded by France in 1846 and 1873, by the United States of America in 1882 and 1895, and by England in 1883 and 1901;

and periodicals are published by the schools of all these four nations. An interest in Greek studies (and especially in art and archaeology) has been maintained in England by the Hellenic Society, founded in 1879, with its organ the Journal of Hellenic Studies. A further interest in Greek archaeology has been awakened in all civilized lands by the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Epidaurus, Sparta, Olympia, Dodona, Delphi, Delos and of important sites in Crete. The extensive discoveries of papyri in Egypt have greatly extended our knowledge of the administration of that country in the times of the Ptolemies, and have materially added to the existing remains of Greek literature. Scholars have been enabled to realize in their own experience some of the enthusiasm that attended the recovery of lost classics during the Revival of Learning. They have found themselves living in a new age of editiones principes, and have eagerly welcomed the first publication of Aristotle’s Constitution of Athens (1891), Herondas (1891) and Bacchylides (1897), as well as the Persae of Timotheus of Miletus (1903), with some of the Paeans of Pindar (1907) and large portions of the plays of Menander (1898–1899 and 1907). The first four of these were first edited by F. G. Kenyon, Timotheus by von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, Menander partly by J. Nicole and G. Lefebre and partly by B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, who have also produced fragments of the Paeans of Pindar and many other classic texts (including a Greek continuation of Thucydides and a Latin epitome of part of Livy) in the successive volumes of the Oxyrhynchus papyri and other kindred publications.

After the Revival of Learning the study of the classics owed much to the influence and example of Vittorino da Feltre, Budacus, Erasmus and Melanchthon, who were among the leading representatives of that revival in Italy, France, England and Germany.

1. In England, the two great schools of Winchester (1382) and Eton (1440) had been founded during the life of Vittorino, but before the revival had reached Britain. The first school which came into being under the immediate influence of humanism was that founded at St Paul’s by Dean