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Rh people, markets were opened, and every facility was offered for the increase of commerce. Long caravans were constantly in motion between Orenburg, Sempolatinsk, and other points in Russian territory, and Khiva, Bokhara, and Samarcand, far to the east. They traversed the Kirghese and Turcoman country, and wherever they went they found a material difference in the matter of safety, whether the territory was under Russian rule or remained independent. If the latter, the caravans were constantly liable to attack and plunder; if the former, they were invariably free from molestation. The capture of Bokhara, Samarcand, and Khiva reduced the slave markets of the Turcoman raiders, but by no means put an end to their plundering expeditions. The independent Turcomans were estimated to be about a million in number, divided into several tribes, who sometimes warred upon each other, but constantly upon the Persians and other peaceable people. In the wars between Khiva and Bokhara, Samarcand and Kokan, they took sides with those who would pay the most for their services. Down to very recently the whole of Northern Persia was subject to Turcoman raids, and agriculture was carried on under great difficulties. The raids were sometimes carried up to within 100 miles of Teheran, or about 500 miles inside the Persian boundary. They were organized months beforehand, and sometimes as many as 5,000 or 6,000 men were engaged in a single enterprise. A raid was called a "chapow" by the Persians; in the Turcoman language it was an "alaman."

A Turcoman leader would announce his intention of making an alaman, but the route was always kept secret through fear of betrayal. The Turcomans are splendid horsemen, and while organizing an expedition they put their steeds under a system of training to enable them to make long and swift marches whenever occasion required. When every thing was ready the party started; it travelled