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416 took the side of the weaker party, who was always glad to have their assistance, but found when too late that he was altogether dependent upon them. In case of their retirement he would be subject to the revenge of his late antagonists, and whenever the Russians proposed to go away they were earnestly urged to remain. Thus they obtained a secure footing in the country and speedily became masters of the situation. Frequently the disputes between the tribes led to raids for purposes of plunder; quite as frequently one tribe would make a raid on another with which it was at peace for the sole object of robbery. Attacks were generally made at night, and if they were successful the robbers would drive off the flocks and herds of the tribe assailed. Men, women, and children were taken to be sold into slavery in the markets of Khiva or Bokhara, or kept among their captors. These slaves were treated with the greatest cruelty; they were severely beaten for the slightest offence or failure to perform what had been ordered, were poorly fed, and often compelled to wear chains. They were generally maimed for life, by means of a horse-hair run through the heel, in order to prevent their escape from captivity.

All this business was brought to an end by the Russians when they occupied the Kirghese country. They compelled the tribes to live peaceably with each other, and if any dispute arose about water or pasturage it was referred to the Russian commander of the district for adjustment. If one tribe made a raid on another it was compelled to give up the stolen property, and furthermore a heavy fine was levied upon the raiders—half going to the Russian government and half to the injured tribe. The Russians generally made the fine heavy enough to furnish a percentage for the officers who took the trouble to adjust the differences. Russian goods were introduced among these nomadic