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 THE MUNICIPAL ORGANIZATION communicated with each other by an internal wall. Besides these, there were deep trenches running round the town, parallel with the external wall. The earth cast up from these was either strengthened by brickwork to make a regular dam, or merely shaped into a rampart. In the years 1809-1820 the fortress walls were pulled down, except the chief part to the north side, which is still standing (illustration 14). The town of Kazimierz was not only independent of Cracow as a city, but also as a

fortress, being surrounded by a wall of its own, with gates and towers. Of these fortifications, however, hardly any relics worth mentioning have been preserved—whereas of those of Cracow we still possess considerable remains, being, in fact, the most interesting part of the whole, viz., the barbican to the north of St. Florian's Gate (illustration 16), this gate itself, and the towers of the Lace-makers, the Joiners, and the Carpenters, with their connecting wall (illustrations 14, 15). All these probably date from