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, Third Edition retain a "copy" or "phonorecord" of the work, as defined under the Copyright Act. See 17 U.S.C. § 101 (definition of "copies" and "phonorecords"). 2

As a general rule, the Office does not consider a work to be published if it is merely displayed or performed online, unless the author or copyright owner clearly authorized the reproduction or distribution of that work, or clearly offered to distribute the work to a group of intermediaries for purposes of further distribution, public performance, or public display.

1008.3(C) The Authorization Requirement

A critical element of publication is that the distribution of copies or phonorecords to the public must be authorized by the copyright owner. To be considered published, the copyright owner must expressly or impliedly authorize users to make retainable copies or phonorecords of the work, whether by downloading, printing, or by other means.

A distribution or offer to distribute that has not been authorized by the copyright owner does not constitute publication. Thus, the mere fact that a work is disclosed on the internet does not "publish" the work. The end user's technical capacity to copy, capture, save, or otherwise reproduce a work in and of itself does not imply that the copyright owner authorized the distribution or publication of that work, unless there is an express or implied-in-fact authorization that supports such an inference. Likewise, the fact that it may be possible for an end user to reproduce or distribute a work that has been authorized only for public display or public performance online does not mean that publication has occurred.

An unauthorized reproduction or distribution online may constitute copyright infringement or may be a fair use in certain circumstances, even if there are no technological protection measures preventing the use of that work. While a fair use may be lawful, it is not considered an authorized reproduction or distribution that publishes the copyright owner's work. Similarly, an infringing reproduction or distribution does not constitute publication, even if the unauthorized copies or phonorecords are dispersed among large number of people.

While it is often a simple matter to determine whether a distribution of tangible copies was authorized by the copyright owner, it is not always factually clear whether the

The term "copies" is used interchangeably in this Chapter to refer to both "copies" and "phonorecords," which are defined in Section 101 of the Copyright Act.

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