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 former; grasping officials have almost a free hand as regards extortion; musty parchments are brought to light in support of titles long forgotten. Matters become worse under Charles I. Neither old Irish nor old English are safe. Puritanism increases in high places, and at the same time to enrich himself seems to be one of the chief duties of a high official. It is unfair to apply to the 17th century the moral standards of the present day; yet if we read Mr. Bagwell's Ireland under the Stuarts, we can hardly fail to be struck by the fact that he seems to look on dishonesty as a norm^al quality of the official of the period. No doubt "the reason of state" can be invoked in defence of a good deal of this. An Irish Catholic with land seemed undoubtedly more dangerous than one without any; and English Kings had not yet realised that Puritanism was incompatible with loyalty. They were soon to be terribly undeceived; but in the meantime they had planted in Ireland a body of men hostile to the throne, while they had alienated those on whom they might have relied for its defence.