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LEFT TORTOISE 445 TORTURE or, more usually, by horny epidermic plates. The exoskeleton consists essen- tiallj'^ of two pieces: a dorsal piece, gen- erally convex (the carapace), and a ven- tral piece, usually flat or concave (the plastron), by some regax-ded as an ab- normally developed sternum, while others consider the bones of which it is com- posed as integumentary ossifications. All the bones of the skull, except the lower jaw and the hyoid bone, are anchylosed. There are no teeth, and the jaws are cased in horn, so as to form a kind of beak. Tongue, thick and fleshy; heart three-chambered, ventricular septum im- perfect. The lungs are voluminous, and respiration is eff'ected by swallowing air. All will pass prolonged periods without food, and will live and move for months after the removal of the entire brain. The most familiar example of true or land tortoises is the dry land terrapin of the Southei-n States (see Terrapin). It is found in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and is said to range as far N. as Switzerland and the S. of France. It is about 12 inches long; the scales are granulated in the center, streaked on the margins, and spotted or marbled with black and yellow. A suc- SKELETON OF TORTOISE eulent vegetable diet is common to the whole family, and all but the tropical species hibernate. The Greek tortoise is an article of food in the S. of Europe, and the flesh of all the species appears to be good, while their eggs are regarded as delicacies. But the most interesting forms are gigantic tortoises formerly found in great numbers in the Mascarene and Galapagos Islands. Five species of cc this group are known, and two of them, Testudo elephanthm, the gigantic land tortoise of Aldabra, and T. abingdomi, the Abingdon Island tortoise, grow to enonnous size. In military terms, a method of defense, used by the ancients, formed by the troops arranging themselves in close or- der and placing their bucklers over their heads, making a cover resembling a tor- toise shell; a Testudo (q. v.). TORTOISE-SHELL, a popular name for the partial or entire outside covering of the carapace and plastron present in many of the Chelonia. It is in the form of thin plates, united together at their edges, and corresponding, to a certain extent, with the underlying bones of the shell. The number, size, position, color- ing, and ornamentation of these plates differ greatly even in genera and species. Also, the name given to the horny epi- dermic plates of C. imhricata, the hawk's- bill turtle. The largest of these plates are about 18 inches long by 6 broad, and rarely exceed one-eighth of an inch in thickness. ^ Tortoise-shell is semi-trans- parent, and mottled with various shades of yellow and brownish-red. Its value depends on the brightness and form of the markings. Tortoise-shell is used for making combs, snuff boxes, and many fancy articles. The Indian Islands fur- nish the largest supply for the European ^ and Chinese markets, the chief seats of the trade being Singapore, Manila, and Batavia, from which are exported yearly about 26,000 pounds, of which Singapore sends about a half. TORTOISE-SHELL BUTTERFLY, the name given to two butterflies. The small tortoise-shell, Vanessa urticx, one of the commonest of butterflies, is of a bright red brown, and has on its costal margin three large black spots, beyond the third of which is a white one. The space be- tween the first and third spots is yellow. The large tortoise-shell, the larva of which feeds on the elm, is much rarer. It is deep fulvous, with a broad, dark border. TORTOLA, a British West Indian island, chief of the Virgin Islands; area, 26 square miles. It is bare and rugged, rising to a height of 1,600 feet. It con- tains Roadtown, the capital of the group. TORTURE, the infliction of pain. It has been largely used in many countries as a judicial instrument for extracting evidence from unwilling witnesses, or confessions fx'om accused persons, and in the despotisms of the East is still so used; the callousness of torturers and tortured being almost equally remarka- Cyc. Vol. IX