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LEFT SWITZERLAND 199 SWITZERLAND crops are grown. The fifth or lower al- pine region, terminating at 6,500 feet, is the proper region of alpine pastures. In the sixth or upper alpine region the vegetation becomes more and more stunted, and the variation of the seasons is lost. The seventh or last region is that of perpetual snow. Many parts even of the lower regions of Switzerland are of a stony, sterile nature, but on every side the effects of persevering industry are apparent, and no spot that can be turned to good account is left unoccupied. The area of the country is very equally divided among the population. There are nearly 300,000 peasant proprietors. Nearly 30 per cent, of the soil is un- productive, and of the productive area about 36 per cent, is grass and meadows, 29 per cent, forests, 19 per cent, fruit, and 16 per cent, crops and gardens. The wheat production in 1919 was 105,900 tons from 130,233 acres; rye, 41,500 tons from 54,513 acres; oats, 42,000 tons from 57,014 acres; potatoes, 828,000 tons. These are the principal crops. They are not sufficient, however, for the demands of the country and the greater part of the food crops are imported. The prin- cipal agricultural industries are the man- ufacture of cheese and condensed milk. Wine is produced in considerable quan- tity and tobacco is grown in some of the cantons. The forest area is about 3,300 square miles. It is carefully preserved and is under the jurisdiction of the Fed- eral government. Manufactures. — Although Switzerland is chiefly an agricultural country, the manufactures are important. There were in 1918 9,137 factories. The man- ufacture of watches and clocks is one of the most important industries. There were exported in 1918 15,396,542 clocks. The making of lace has long been one of the most extensive industries of the country. There are nearly 2,000 em- broidery establishments, employing nearly 10,000 embroidery machines. The brewing of beer is carried on on a con- siderable scale. There are over 100 breweries, producing nearly 20,000,000 gallons of beer annually. Commerce. — The imports in 1919 amounted to £134,821,000 and the exports to £118,718,080. The chief articles of import were cereals, cotton goods, silk goods, mineral substances. The chief ar- ticles of export were cotton goods, linen goods, woolen goods, machinery and clocks. The largest portion of imports were obtained from Germany, followed by France, Italy and the United King- dom. France took the larger portion of exports, but was followed closely by Ger- many. The imports from the United States for the fiscal year 1920 amounted to $49,215,680, and the exports to the United States for the same period were valued at $46,394,211. Transportation. — There were in 1919 about 3,700 miles of railv/ay. The cost of construction up to the end of 1918 was about £100,000,000. The state rail- ways are being electrified. There are about 1,800 miles of telegraph line and about 12,294 miles of telephone line. Education. — There is no central edu- cational administration. Each of the cantons has its own system and regula- tions. Primary instruction is free. In the northeastern cantons where the in- ^ habitants are chiefly Protestant the pro- portion attending school to the whole population is as 1 to 5. In the half Protestant and half Roman Catholic can- tons the proportion is as 1 to 7, and in the entirely Roman Catholic cantons it is as 1 to 9. There are primary schools in every district and secondary schools from the ages of 12 to 15. There are about 5,000 primary schools with about 15,000 teachers and about 600,000 pupils. The secondary schools number about 535, with about 50,000 pupils. In addition there are commercial schools, technical schools, agricultural schools, and schools for the blind, deaf, and feeble minded. There are 7 universities, those of Basel, Zurich, Bern, Geneva, Lausanne, Fri- bourg, and Neuchatel. Finance. The estimated revenue for the year 1920 was £11,256,000, and the estimated expenditure £13,653,861. The chief sources of revenue are finance and customs, posts and railways, and in- vested capital. The chief expenditures are for posts and railways, interest on the debt, and the army. The public debt on January 1, 1920, was £55,261,460, and the floating debt was £14,400,000, or a total of £69,661,460. Army. — The army of Switzerland is a national militia, service in which is com- pulsory and universal. Liability extends from the 20th to the end of the 48th year. The country is divided into 6 di- visional districts and the field army con- sists of 6 divisions and 4 cavalry bri- gades. There is a staff organization for 3 army corps. The total peace strength is about 140,000. In addition there is a separate force for manning, and forti- fication, which guards the St. Gothard pass and the Rhone valley. This amounts to about 21,000 men. Landwehr com- prises 56 battalions and 36 squadrons. In all about 200,000 men are available for mobilization. Government and Finance. — The can- tons of Switzerland are united together