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LEFT SEVEN YEARS' WAR 354 SEVERN Prussia, while France agreed to aid Aus- tria against Frederick. Being informed of these negotiations Frederick resolved to anticipate his enemies. In August, 1756, he invaded Saxony, occupied the chief towns, and compelled the Saxon army to surrender. This step created a stir in the European courts, and hi 1757 Austria, Russia, France, Sweden, and the German empire were in arms against Frederick, while he had no ally but Eng- land and a few German states. In 1757 Frederick marched into Bohemia and gained a bloody battle at Prague (May 6). Soon after, however, the Austrians under Daun defeated Frederick at Kollin (June 18), relieved Prague, and forced the Prussians to retreat to Saxony and Lusatia. The French army, after defeat- ing Frederick's German allies (under the Duke of Cumberland) at Hastenbeck, united with the imperial forces; Freder- ick met them at Rossbach and routed both armies on Nov. 5. He then hurried back to Silesia, which was occupied by the Austrians, and vanquished a supe- rior army under Daun at Leuthen (Dec. 5), thus recovering Silesia. While Fred- erick was thus occupied in the S. and W., his General Lehwald had successfully repelled the Swedes and Russians on the N. and E. The next campaign was opened in February, 1758, by Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, who, at the head of Fred- erick's allies, opposed the French in Lower Saxony and Westphalia. He defeated the French at Krefeld in June, and ultimately drove the enemy behind the Rhine. Fred- erick, driven out of Moravia, defeated the Russians, who had advanced to Zorn- dorf, in Brandenburg, was defeated in turn by Daun at Hofkirchen, but before the end of the year drove the Austrians from Silesia and Saxony. Louis XV. and his mistress, the Marchioness de Pompa- dour, were bent on continuing the war, and concluded a new alliance with Aus- tria, Dec. 30, 1758. Frederick, however, had also obtained a new treaty with Great Britain, which promised him a large yearly subsidy. The new campaign was opened in March, 1759, Prince Henry, Frederick's brother, marched into Bo- hemia, where he dispersed the hostile forces, and captured immense quantities of military stores. The Russians, having defeated the Prussian General Wedel near Ziillichau (July 23), advanced to Frank- fort-on-the-Oder. Frederick hastened to meet them in person, and had already defeated them at Kunersdorf (Aug. 12) when his victory was snatched from him by the Austrians under Laudon, who in- flicted on him a defeat such as he had never sustained before, Frederick's posi- tion was now extremely precarious. The Russians were victorious in his heredi- tary states, Daun was in Lusatia with a large army, and Saxony was overrun by the imperial troops. In the W. Fred- erick's allies had been more successful. On Aug. 1 Ferdinand gained a splendid victory at Minden over the French troops under Contades and Brogiie. On the same day his nephew defeated the French at Gohfeld, and they were driven over the Lahn on one side and over the Rhine on the other. The Swedes, also, who, after the battle of Kunersdorf invaded Prussian Pomerania, were driven by Manteuffel and Platen under the cannon of Stralsund. The campaign of 1760 seemed at first to forebode ill success to Frederick. While he himself was en- gaged in Saxony Fouque suffered a defeat in Silesia, in consequence of which the Austrians occupied the whole country. Frederick thereupon gave up Saxony in order to recover Silesia. On Aug. 15 he defeated Laudon at Liegnitz, by which he effected his purpose of recovering Si- lesia. He then returned to Saxony and attacked the imperial forces at Torgau, on the Elbe (Nov. 3), defeated them in a bloody engagement and went into winter quarters in Saxony. The Russians also were forced to retire to Poland, and Fer- dinand defeated the French at Warburg (July 31). In the campaign of 1761 the operations of Ferdinand of Brunswick and the French on the Rhine consisted of alter- nate advances and retreats, and the Rus- sians and Austrians were so enfeebled that they failed to make any impression on Frederick's remnant of an army. In the campaign of 1762 the French were defeated (June 24) at Wilhelmsthal, and Cassel surrendered to the allies on Nov. 1. Two days after this the preliminaries of peace between Great Britain and France were signed, and the peace itself was confirmed at Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. After a short negotiation Frederick con- cluded a peace with Austria and Sajcony at Hubertsburg (Feb. 15), by whi«h he retained Silesia. The war in Europe was accompanied by war by sea and land be- tween the French and British abroad, the result of which was to give Great Britain a decided superiority over France both in America and India. SEVERN, the second largest river in England, formed by the union of two small streams which rise in Mount Plin- limmon, Montgomeryshire. It flows through Montgomeryshire, Shropshire, Worcestershire, and Gloucestershire, pass- ing the towns of Newtown, Welshpool, Shrewsbury, Worcester, Tewkesbury, Gloucester, and Bristol, and after a cir- cuitous S. course of about 210 miles falls